Long-term exposure to dichlorvos (O,O-dimethyl-2,2-dichlorovinyl phosphate (DDVP), an organophosphate pesticide) is reported to exert neurotoxicity, i.e., generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), oxidative damage, and neuronal cell death along with life- and health-span reduction in nontarget organisms including humans. However, studies on genetic modulation towards neuroprotection against prolonged DDVP exposure are elusive. Hsp27 (a small heat shock protein) is involved in various cellular processes and thus has attained emphasis as a therapeutic target. We aimed to examine the protective effect of hsp27 overexpression against prolonged DDVP exposure using an in vivo model Drosophila melanogaster. Flies were exposed to 15.0 ng/ml DDVP for a prolonged period to examine neuronal cell death, locomotor performance, and lifespan. After prolonged exposure, cell death, ROS level, glutathione depletion, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate level (NADPH), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) activities were examined in fly brain tissues at different days of age (days 10, 20, and 30). Flies with ubiquitous overexpression of hsp27 showed better resistance (improved lifespan and locomotor performance) in comparison to that targeted to motor neurons and nervous system. These flies also exhibited lesser intracellular ROS level and glutathione depletion by restoring G6PD activity, NADPH level, and TrxR activity in their brains thereby resisted neuronal cell death. Conversely, hsp27 knockdown flies exhibited reversal of the above endpoints. The study evidenced the neuroprotective efficacy of hsp27 overexpression against prolonged DDVP exposure and favored Hsp27 as a therapeutic target towards achieving better organismal (including human) health against long-term chemical exposure.
The mitochondrion has a unique position among other cellular organelles due to its dynamic properties and symbiotic nature, which is reflected in an active exchange of metabolites and cofactors between the rest of the intracellular compartments. The mitochondrial energy metabolism is greatly dependent on nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) as a cofactor that is essential for both the activity of respiratory and TCA cycle enzymes. The NAD level is determined by the rate of NAD synthesis, the activity of NAD-consuming enzymes, and the exchange rate between the individual subcellular compartments. In this review, we discuss the NAD synthesis pathways, the NAD degradation enzymes, and NAD subcellular localization, as well as NAD transport mechanisms with a focus on mitochondria. Finally, the effect of the pathologic depletion of mitochondrial NAD pools on mitochondrial proteins’ post-translational modifications and its role in neurodegeneration will be reviewed. Understanding the physiological constraints and mechanisms of NAD maintenance and the exchange between subcellular compartments is critical given NAD’s broad effects and roles in health and disease.
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