The purpose of this quasi-experimental study was to (a) compare Tier 2 evidence-based intensive reading instruction to business-as-usual instruction for sixth graders with and without learning disabilities who were "far below" or "below" basic level in literacy and (b) explore the development of a response-to-inter vention model in middle school. The study took place in a large inner-city urban setting, where 100% of students received free or reduced-price lunch and 90% of the students were considered English learners at some point in their school history. Interven tion students received intensive small-group instruction for 30 hours across 10 weeks. Credential candidates in special education provided the small-group instruction in the treatment condition. Results on oral reading fluency, less so for Maze reading com prehension measures, indicated greater improvements for treat ment students, and students with learning disabilities benefited as much or more than the other struggling sixth graders. Educa tional implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.

African American children continue to be overrepresented in special education classrooms. Despite this overrepresentation, there is a noticeable void in the literature concerning the family perceptions of special education and the impact these perceptions may have on parents' level of involvement. Therefore, this article discusses (a) African American family involvement in the educational process, including special education; (b) the perceptions of African American families concerning special education and how these perceptions might prevent parents from participating; (c) potential barriers to participation; and (d) suggestions for increasing the level of participation of African American families in the educational process.

Current research suggests that parents are a key component to the school success of their children. However, in today’s world, parents often work long hours, have more than one job, and participate in multiple responsibilities that may limit their participation. Because of the variety of factors that impinge on parents, educators often criticize them for their nonparticipation or limited participation in the school environment. The purpose of this study was to determine the degree of alienation, if any, that African American parents feel toward public education. A modified version of the Barriers to School Involvement Survey was administered to 421 African American parents. The questionnaire was factored into five problem categories for analysis (e.g., personal concerns, work, lack of interest, logistics, teacher/parent relationships). Although significance was found among the five problem categories and across the six research questions (e.g., problem categories, employment status, economics, special education vs. general education, family composition, and parent education levels), the findings indicate that parents did not view the five problem categories as a concern impacting their school involvement.

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Two experimental studies at one urban middle school investigated the effects of the combination of Tier I and Tier II evidence-based reading instruction compared to Tier I alone on struggling sixth-grade readers (N ϭ 109). All participants received free or reduced-price lunch, and 95% were considered English learners at some point in their school history. In both studies, Tier II intervention consisted of intensive instruction in word analysis, fluency building, comprehension, and vocabulary for 30 hours across 10 weeks. Results of both studies taken individually and combined indicated significant differences in favor of the intervention groups on oral reading fluency. The second study indicated significantly stronger performances for the intervention group on the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-Revised (WRMT-R/ NU) passage comprehension subtest. Tier II interventions and Response to Intervention (RTI) for older struggling readers are discussed related to educational implications and future research.