The purpose of this paper is to review relevant literature concerning limb length inequalities in adults and to make recommendations for assessment and intervention based on the literature and our own clinical experience. Literature searches were conducted in the MEDLINE, PubMed, and CINAHL databases. Limb length inequality and common classification criteria are defined and etiological factors are presented. Common methods of detecting limb length inequality include direct (tape measure methods), indirect (pelvic leveling), and radiological techniques. Interventions include shoe inserts or external shoe lift therapy for mild cases. Surgery may be appropriate in severe cases. Little agreement exists regarding the prevalence of limb length inequality, the degree of limb length inequality that is considered clinically significant, and the reliability and validity of assessment methods. Based on correlational studies, the relationship between limb length inequality and orthopaedic pathologies is questionable. Stronger support for the link between low back pain (LBP) and limb length inequality is provided by intervention studies. Methods involving palpation of pelvic landmarks with block correction have the most support for clinical assessment of limb length inequality. Standing radiographs are suggested when clinical assessment methods are unsatisfactory. Clinicians should exercise caution when undertaking intervention strategies for limb length inequality of less than 5 mm when limb length inequality has been identified with clinical techniques. Recommendations are provided regarding intervention strategies. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2003;33:221-234.

Adaptor protein complexes (AP) are major components of the cytoplasmic coat found on clathrin-coated vesicles. Here, we report the molecular and functional characterization of Dictyostelium clathrin-associated AP-1 complex, which in mammalian cells, participates mainly in budding of clathrin-coated vesicles from the trans-Golgi network (TGN). The gamma-adaptin AP-1 subunit was cloned and shown to belong to a Golgi-localized 300-kDa protein complex. Time-lapse analysis of cells expressing gamma-adaptin tagged with the green-fluorescent protein demonstrates the dynamics of AP-1-coated structures leaving the Golgi apparatus and rarely moving toward the TGN. Targeted disruption of the AP-1 medium chain results in viable cells displaying a severe growth defect and a delayed developmental cycle compared with parental cells. Lysosomal enzymes are constitutively secreted as precursors, suggesting that protein transport between the TGN and lysosomes is defective. Although endocytic protein markers are correctly localized to endosomal compartments, morphological and ultrastructural studies reveal the absence of large endosomal vacuoles and an increased number of small vacuoles. In addition, the function of the contractile vacuole complex (CV), an osmoregulatory organelle is impaired and some CV components are not correctly targeted.

Clathrin-coated vesicles play an established role in endocytosis from the plasma membrane, but they are also found on internal organelles. We examined the composition of clathrin-coated vesicles on an internal organelle responsible for osmoregulation, the Dictyostelium discoideum contractile vacuole. Clathrin puncta on contractile vacuoles contained multiple accessory proteins typical of plasma membrane-coated pits, including AP2, AP180, and epsin, but not Hip1r. To examine how these clathrin accessory proteins influenced the contractile vacuole, we generated cell lines that carried single and double gene knockouts in the same genetic background. Single or double mutants that lacked AP180 or AP2 exhibited abnormally large contractile vacuoles. The enlarged contractile vacuoles in AP180-null mutants formed because of excessive homotypic fusion among contractile vacuoles. The SNARE protein Vamp7B was mislocalized and enriched on the contractile vacuoles of AP180-null mutants. In vitro assays revealed that AP180 interacted with the cytoplasmic domain of Vamp7B. We propose that AP180 directs Vamp7B into clathrin-coated vesicles on contractile vacuoles, creating an efficient mechanism for regulating the internal distribution of fusion-competent SNARE proteins and limiting homotypic fusions among contractile vacuoles. Dictyostelium contractile vacuoles offer a valuable system to study clathrin-coated vesicles on internal organelles within eukaryotic cells.

SummaryRecently, it has become clear that the actin cytoskeleton is involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis. During clathrin-mediated endocytosis, clathrin triskelions and adaptor proteins assemble into lattices, forming clathrin-coated pits. These coated pits invaginate and detach from the membrane, a process that requires dynamic actin polymerization. We found an unexpected role for the clathrin adaptor epsin in regulating actin dynamics during this late stage of coated vesicle formation. In Dictyostelium cells, epsin is required for both the membrane recruitment and phosphorylation of the actin-and clathrin-binding protein Hip1r. Epsin-null and Hip1r-null cells exhibit deficiencies in the timing and organization of actin filaments at clathrin-coated pits. Consequently, clathrin structures persist on the membranes of epsin and Hip1r mutants and the internalization of clathrin structures is delayed. We conclude that epsin works with Hip1r to regulate actin dynamics by controlling the spatial and temporal coupling of actin filaments to clathrin-coated pits. Specific residues in the ENTH domain of epsin that are required for the membrane recruitment and phosphorylation of Hip1r are also required for normal actin and clathrin dynamics at the plasma membrane. We propose that epsin promotes the membrane recruitment and phosphorylation of Hip1r, which in turn regulates actin polymerization at clathrin-coated pits.

Epsin contains a phospholipid-binding ENTH domain coupled to C-terminal domain motifs that bind coated pit proteins. We examined how these domains interact to influence epsin function and localization in Dictyostelium. Although not required for global clathrin function, epsin was essential for constructing oval spores during development. Within the epsin protein, we found that features important for essential function were distinct from features targeting epsin to clathrin-coated pits. On its own, the phospholipid-binding ENTH domain could rescue the epsin-null phenotype. Although necessary and sufficient for function, the isolated ENTH domain was not targeted within clathrin-coated pits. The C-terminal domain containing the coated-pit motif was also insufficient, highlighting a requirement for both domains for targeting to coated pits. Replacement of the ENTH domain by an alternative membrane-binding domain resulted in epsin that sequestered clathrin and AP2 and ablated clathrin function, supporting a modulatory role for the ENTH domain. Within the ENTH domain, residues important for PtdIns(4,5)P2 binding were essential for both epsin localization and function, whereas residue T107 was essential for function but not coated pit localization. Our results support a model where the ENTH domain coordinates with the clathrin-binding C-terminal domain to allow a dynamic interaction of epsin with coated pits.

Clathrin-coated pits assemble on the plasma membrane to select and sequester proteins within coated vesicles for delivery to intracellular compartments. Although a host of clathrin-associated proteins have been identified, much less is known regarding the interactions between clathrin-associated proteins or how individual proteins influence the function of other proteins. In this study, we present evidence of a functional relationship between two clathrin-associated proteins in Dictyostelium, Hip1r and epsin. Hip1r-null cells form fruiting bodies that yield defective spores that lack the organized fibrils typical of wild-type spores. This spore coat defect leads to formation of round, rather than ovoid, spores in Hip1r-null cells that exhibit decreased viability. Like Hip1r-null cells, epsin-null cells also construct fruiting bodies with round spores, but these spores are more environmentally robust. Double-null cells that harbor deletions in both epsin and Hip1r form fruiting bodies, with spores identical in shape and viability to Hip1r single-null cells. In the growing amoeba, Hip1r is phosphorylated and localizes to puncta on the plasma membrane that also contain epsin. Both the phosphorylation state and localization of Hip1r into membrane puncta require epsin. Moreover, expression of the N-terminal ENTH domain of epsin is sufficient to restore both the phosphorylation and the restricted localization of Hip1r within plasma membrane puncta. The results from this study reveal a novel interaction between two clathrin-associated proteins during cellular events in both growing and developing Dictyostelium cells.