Studies on human perception have identified pelvis and torso motion as key discriminators between male and female gaits. However, while most observers would advocate that men and women walk differently, consistent findings and explanations of sex differences in gait kinematics across modern empirical studies are rare. In the present study we evaluated sex differences in whole body gait kinematics from a large sample of subjects (55 men, 36 women) walking at self selected speeds. We analyzed the data through comparisons of discrete metrics and whole curve analyses. Results showed that in the frontal plane, women walked with greater pelvic obliquity than men, but exhibited a more stable torso and head. Women had greater transverse plane pelvis and torso rotation as well as greater arm swing. Additional sex differences were noted at the hip and ankle. These kinematic results are in line with anectdotal observations and qualitative studies. In order to understand these observations and substantiate some of the explanations previously set forth in the biomechanics literature, we also explored possible reasons for dynamic sex effects, and suggested applications that may benefit from their consideration.

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The common perception that men and women walk differently has been supported by studies in psychology and human perception; however, in modern empirical kinematic studies, sex differences are surprisingly limited, contradictory, or equivocal. Interest in sex differences spans many fields, from psychology to medicine to surveillance. In this review, we assemble and analyze what is known about spatiotemporal and kinematic variables of female and male gait. Historical perspectives, which indicate that sex is identifiable from point-light walkers, are briefly canvassed to help guide identification of structural and kinematic differences. Both spatiotemporal and kinematic data from the past three decades are then presented and discussed. We further analyze the published data in order to identify how height-normalization may affect noted spatiotemporal differences between the sexes. Subsequently, gaps in published data, and the implication of such missing information on gait analysis, are identified. From the analysis performed herein, we suggest that the pooled literature indicates that gait speed decreases with age, and, furthermore, decreases more for women than men. The meta-analysis of spatiotemporal variables normalized to height implies that step length is height-dependent, and, when height-matched, women may walk at a slightly faster preferred speed than men. The compilation of kinematic data suggests that coronal plane pelvis and hip range of motion may be different between the sexes. However, further investigation is needed on nearly every body segment, with special attention to the torso and upper extremities, to explain and quantify or refute gait differences as identified through perception and psychology literature. 2 Distribution A. Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. 88ABW-2013-3853; Cleared

Sprains of the first metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint, referred to colloquially as "turf toe," are a debilitating sports injury because the hallux is pivotal to an athletes' ability to accelerate and cut. Severe sprains may require weeks to full recovery, and injuries requiring surgery may prevent an athlete from full athletic participation for months. Whereas the diagnosis and treatment of turf toe are well documented in the literature, less is known about the biomechanics of this joint and the mechanical properties of the structures that compose it. Nevertheless, this information is vital to those, such as equipment designers, who attempt to develop athletic footwear and surfaces intended to reduce the likelihood of injury. To that end, this review summarizes the literature on the anatomy of the first MTP joint, on biomechanical studies of the first MTP joint, and on the incidence, mechanisms, and treatment of turf toe. Furthermore, gaps in the literature are identified and opportunities for future research are discussed. Only through a thorough synthesis of the anatomic, biomechanical, and clinical knowledge regarding first MTP joint sprains can appropriate countermeasures be designed to reduce the prevalence and severity of these injuries.