BackgroundStudies in animal models and in cultured cells have shown that fatty acids can induce alterations in the DNA methylation of specific genes. There have been no studies of the effects of fatty acid supplementation on the epigenetic regulation of genes in adult humans.Methods and ResultsWe investigated the effect of supplementing renal patients with 4 g daily of either n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LCPUFA) or olive oil (OO) for 8 weeks on the methylation status of individual CpG loci in the 5′ regulatory region of genes involved in PUFA biosynthesis in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from men and women (aged 53 to 63 years). OO and n-3 LCPUFA each altered (>10% difference in methylation) 2/22 fatty acid desaturase (FADS)-2 CpGs, while n-3 LCPUFA, but not OO, altered (>10%) 1/12 ELOVL5 CpGs in men. OO altered (>6%) 8/22 FADS2 CpGs and (>3%) 3/12 elongase (ELOVL)-5 CpGs, while n-3 LCPUFA altered (>5%) 3/22 FADS2 CpGs and 2/12 (>3%) ELOVL5 CpGs in women. FADS1 or ELOVL2 methylation was unchanged. The n-3 PUFA supplementation findings were replicated in blood DNA from healthy adults (aged 23 to 30 years). The methylation status of the altered CpGs in FADS2 and ELOVL5 was associated negatively with the level of their transcripts.ConclusionsThese findings show that modest fatty acid supplementation can induce altered methylation of specific CpG loci in adult humans, contingent on the nature of the supplement and on sex. This has implications for understanding the effect of fatty acids on PUFA metabolism and cell function.

Experimental studies show a substantial contribution of early life environment to obesity risk through epigenetic processes. We examined inter-individual DNA methylation differences in human birth tissues associated with child's adiposity. We identified a novel association between the level of CpG methylation at birth within the promoter of the long non-coding RNA ANRIL (encoded at CDKN2A) and childhood adiposity at age 6-years. An association between ANRIL methylation and adiposity was also observed in three additional populations; in birth tissues from ethnically diverse neonates, in peripheral blood from adolescents, and in adipose tissue from adults. Additionally, CpG methylation was associated with ANRIL expression in vivo, and CpG mutagenesis in vitro inhibited ANRIL promoter activity. Furthermore, CpG methylation enhanced binding to an Estrogen Response Element within the ANRIL promoter. Our findings demonstrate that perinatal methylation at loci relevant to gene function may be a robust marker of later adiposity, providing substantial support for epigenetic processes in mediating long-term consequences of early life environment on human health.

The early environment, acting via epigenetic processes, is associated with differential risk of cardiometabolic disease (CMD), which can be predicted by epigenetic marks in proxy tissues. However, such measurements at time points disparate from the health outcome or the environmental exposure may be confounded by intervening stochastic and environmental variation. To address this, we analyzed DNA methylation in the peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor γ coactivator 1α promoter in blood from 40 children (20 boys) collected annually between 5 and 14 years of age by pyrosequencing. Body composition was measured annually by dual X-ray absorptiometry, physical activity by accelerometry, and pubertal timing by age at peak high velocity. The effect of methylation on transcription factor binding was investigated by electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Seven cytosine guanine dinucleotide (CpG) loci were identified that showed no significant temporal change or association with leukocyte populations. Modeling using generalized estimating equations showed that methylation of four loci predicted adiposity up to 14 years independent of sex, age, pubertal timing, and activity. Methylation of one predictive locus modified binding of the proadipogenic pre–B-cell leukemia homeobox-1/homeobox 9 complex. These findings suggest that temporally stable CpG loci measured in childhood may have utility in predicting CMD risk.

Female humans and rodents have been shown to have higher 22:6n-3 status than males. Sex hormones are involved, but it is unclear whether higher 22:6n-3 status and biosynthesis in females is mediated by the action of estrogen or progesterone. We investigated the specificity of the effects of physiological concentrations of sex hormones on the mRNA expression of genes involved in polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) biosynthesis and on the conversion of [d5]-18:3n-3 to longer chain fatty acids in HepG2 cells. Progesterone, but not 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2) or testosterone, increased the mRNA expression of FADS2, FADS1, ELOVl 5 and ELOVl 2. Progesterone induced similar changes in primary human hepatocytes, although the increase in expression was only significant for FADS2. This was accompanied by reduced methylation of specific CpG loci in the FADS2 promoter located within a putative cAMP response element binding protein binding domain in HepG2 cells. Progesterone, but not EE2 or testosterone, increased conversion of [d5]-18:3n-3 to 20:5n-3, 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3. Together these findings show that progesterone up-regulates n-3 PUFA biosynthesis by increasing the mRNA expression of genes involved in this pathway, possibly via changes in the epigenetic regulation of FADS2, in human liver cells in vitro.

Background Early life environments induce long-term changes in neurocognitive development and behaviour. In animal models, early environmental cues affect neuropsychological phenotypes via epigenetic processes but, as yet, there is little direct evidence for such mechanisms in humans.Method We examined the relation between DNA methylation at birth and child neuropsychological outcomes in two culturally diverse populations using a genome-wide methylation analysis and validation by pyrosequencing.Results Within the UK Southampton Women’s Survey (SWS) we first identified 41 differentially methylated regions of interest (DMROI) at birth associated with child’s full-scale IQ at age 4 years. Associations between HES1 DMROI methylation and later cognitive function were confirmed by pyrosequencing in 175 SWS children. Consistent with these findings, higher HES1 methylation was associated with higher executive memory function in a second independent group of 200 SWS 7-year-olds. Finally, we examined a pathway for this relationship within a Singaporean cohort (n = 108). Here, HES1 DMROI methylation predicted differences in early infant behaviour, known to be associated with academic success. In vitro, methylation of HES1 inhibited ETS transcription factor binding, suggesting a functional role of this site.Conclusions Thus, our findings suggest that perinatal epigenetic processes mark later neurocognitive function and behaviour, providing support for a role of epigenetic processes in mediating the long-term consequences of early life environment on cognitive development.

Our findings provide further evidence of a developmental contribution to the risk of later allergic disorders and suggest that involvement of epigenetic mechanisms in childhood asthma is already demonstrable at birth.

Background The early life environment may influence susceptibility to obesity and metabolic disease in later life through epigenetic processes. SLC6A4 is an important mediator of serotonin bioavailability, and has a key role in energy balance. We tested the hypothesis that methylation of the SLC6A4 gene predicts adiposity across the life course. Methods DNA methylation at 5 CpGs within the SLC6A4 gene identified from a previous methyl binding domain array was measured by pyrosequencing. We measured DNA methylation in umbilical cord (UC) from children in the Southampton Women’s Survey cohort ( n = 680), in peripheral blood from adolescents in the Western Australian Pregnancy Cohort Study ( n = 812), and in adipose tissue from lean and obese adults from the UK BIOCLAIMS cohort ( n = 81). Real-time PCR was performed to assess whether there were corresponding alterations in gene expression in the adipose tissue. Results Lower UC methylation of CpG5 was associated with higher total fat mass at 4 years ( p = 0.031), total fat mass at 6–7 years ( p = 0.0001) and % fat mass at 6–7 years ( p = 0.004). Lower UC methylation of CpG5 was also associated with higher triceps skinfold thickness at birth ( p = 0.013), 6 months ( p = 0.038), 12 months ( p = 0.062), 2 years ( p = 0.0003), 3 years ( p = 0.00004) and 6–7 years ( p = 0.013). Higher maternal pregnancy weight gain ( p = 0.046) and lower parity ( p = 0.029) were both associated with lower SLC6A4 CpG5 methylation. In adolescents, lower methylation of CpG5 in peripheral blood was associated with greater concurrent measures of adiposity including BMI (p ≤ 0.001), waist circumference ( p = 0.011), subcutaneous fat (p ≤ 0.001) and subscapular, abdominal and suprailiac skinfold thicknesses ( p = 0.002, p = 0.008, p = 0.004, respectively). In adipose tissue, methylation of both SLC6A4 CpG5 ( p = 0.019) and expression of SLC6A4 ( p = 0.008) was lower in obese compared with lean adults. Conclusions These data suggest that altered methylation of CpG loci within SLC6A4 may provide a robust marker of adiposity across the life course.

Poor intrauterine and childhood growth has been linked with the risk of osteoporosis in later life, a relationship that may in part be mediated through altered epigenetic regulation of genes. We previously identified a region within the promoter of the long non‐coding RNA ANRIL encoded by the CDKN2A locus, at which differential DNA methylation at birth showed correlations with offspring adiposity. Given the common lineage of adipocytes and osteoblasts, we investigated the relationship between perinatal CDKN2A methylation and bone mass at ages 4 and 6 years. Using sodium bisulfite pyrosequencing, we measured the methylation status of the 9 CpGs within this region in umbilical cord samples from discovery (n = 332) and replication (n = 337) cohorts of children from the Southampton Women's Survey, whose bone mass was assessed by dual‐energy X‐ray absorptiomietry (DXA; Hologic Discovery). Inverse associations were found between perinatal CDKN2A methylation and whole‐body minus head bone area (BA), bone mineral content (BMC), and areal bone mineral density (BMD). This was confirmed in replication and combined data sets (all p < 0.01), with each 10% increase in methylation being associated with a decrease in BMC of 4 to 9 g at age 4 years (p ≤ 0.001). Relationships were similar with 6‐year bone mass. Functional investigation of the differentially methylated region in the SaOS‐2 osteosarcoma cell line showed that transcription factors bound to the identified CpGs in a methylation‐specific manner and that CpG mutagenesis modulated ANRIL expression. In conclusion, perinatal methylation at CDKN2A is associated with childhood bone development and has significance for cell function. © 2017 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research Published by Wiley Periodicals Inc.