Multiple sclerosis (MS) and its mouse model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, are autoimmune CNS inflammatory diseases. As a result of a breakdown in the relatively impermeable blood–brain barrier (BBB) in affected individuals, myelin-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells gain entry into the immune privileged CNS and initiate myelin, oligodendrocyte, and nerve axon destruction. However, despite the absolute requirement for T cells, there is increasing evidence that innate immune cells also play critical amplifying roles in disease pathogenesis. By modulating the character and magnitude of the myelin-reactive T cell response and regulating BBB integrity, innate cells affect both disease initiation and progression. Two classes of innate cells, mast cells and innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), have been best studied in models of allergic and gastrointestinal inflammatory diseases. Yet, there is emerging evidence that these cell types also exert a profound influence in CNS inflammatory disease. Both cell types are residents within the meninges and can be activated early in disease to express a wide variety of disease-modifying cytokines and chemokines. In this review, we discuss how mast cells and ILCs can have either disease-promoting or -protecting effects on MS and other CNS inflammatory diseases and how sex hormones may influence this outcome. These observations suggest that targeting these cells and their unique mediators can be exploited therapeutically.
Proinflammatory responses induced by Plasmodium falciparum glycosylphosphatidylinositols (GPIs) are thought to be involved in malaria pathogenesis. In this study, we investigated the role of MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 (MK2) in the regulation of tumor necrosis factor-␣ (TNF-␣) and interleukin (IL)-12, two of the major inflammatory cytokines produced by macrophages stimulated with GPIs. We show that MK2 differentially regulates the GPI-induced production of TNF-␣ and IL-12. Although TNF-␣ production was markedly decreased, IL-12 expression was increased by 2-3-fold in GPI-stimulated MK2 ؊/؊ macrophages compared with wild type (WT) cells. MK2؊/؊ macrophages produced markedly decreased levels of TNF-␣ than WT macrophages mainly because of lower mRNA stability and translation. In the case of IL-12, mRNA was substantially higher in MK2 ؊/؊ macrophages than WT. This enhanced production is due to increased NF-B binding to the gene promoter, a markedly lower level expression of the transcriptional repressor factor c-Maf, and a decreased binding of GAP-12 to the gene promoter in MK2 ؊/؊ macrophages. Thus, our data demonstrate for the first time the role of MK2 in the transcriptional regulation of IL-12. Using the protein kinase inhibitors SB203580 and U0126, we also show that the ERK and p38 pathways regulate TNF-␣ and IL-12 production, and that both inhibitors can reduce phosphorylation of MK2 in response to GPIs and other toll-like receptor ligands. These results may have important implications for developing therapeutics for malaria and other infectious diseases.
SummaryPlasmodium falciparum glycosylphosphatidylinositols (GPIs) have been proposed as malaria pathogenic factors based on their ability to induce proinflammatory responses in macrophages and malaria-like symptoms in mice. Parasite GPIs induce the production of inflammatory cytokines by activating the mitogenactivated protein kinase (MAPK) and NF-jB signaling pathways. Importantly, inhibition of the extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway upregulates a subset of cytokines, including IL-12. We investigated the role of nuclear transcription factor, IjB-f, in the GPI-induced dysregulated expression of IL-12 on inhibition of the ERK pathway. GPIs efficiently induced the expression of IjB-f in macrophages regardless of whether cells were pretreated or untreated with ERK inhibitors, indicating that ERK has no role in IjB-f expression. However, on ERK inhibition followed by stimulation with GPIs, NF-jB binding to Il12b promoter jB site was markedly increased, suggesting that the ERK pathway regulates Il12b transcription. Knockdown of IjB-f using siRNA markedly reduced the GPI-induced IL-12 production and abrogated the dysregulated IL-12 production in ERK inhibited cells. Together these results demonstrate that ERK modulates IL-12 expression by regulating IjB-f-dependent binding of NF-jB transcription factors to Il12b gene promoter. Additionally, our finding that IjB-f can be knocked down efficiently in primary macrophages is valuable for studies aimed at gaining further insights into IjB-f function.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.
hi@scite.ai
10624 S. Eastern Ave., Ste. A-614
Henderson, NV 89052, USA
Copyright © 2024 scite LLC. All rights reserved.
Made with 💙 for researchers
Part of the Research Solutions Family.