No abstract

Ultrasound is among the most widely used biomedical imaging modalities, but has limited ability to image specific molecular targets due to the lack of suitable nanoscale contrast agents. Gas vesicles – genetically encoded protein nanostructures isolated from buoyant photosynthetic microbes – have recently been identified as nanoscale reporters for ultrasound. Their unique physical properties give gas vesicles significant advantages over conventional microbubble contrast agents, including nanoscale dimensions and inherent physical stability. Furthermore, as a genetically encoded material, gas vesicles present the possibility that the nanoscale mechanical, acoustic and targeting properties of an imaging agent can be engineered at the level of its constituent proteins. Here, we demonstrate that genetic engineering of gas vesicles results in nanostructures with new mechanical, acoustic, surface and functional properties to enable harmonic, multiplexed and multimodal ultrasound imaging, as well as cell-specific molecular targeting. These results establish a biomolecular platform for the engineering of acoustic nanomaterials.

Gas vesicles are a unique class of gas-filled protein nanostructures whose physical properties allow them to serve as highly sensitive imaging agents for ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), detectable at sub-nanomolar concentrations. Here we provide a protocol for isolating gas vesicles from native and heterologous host organisms, functionalizing these nanostructures with moieties for targeting and fluorescence, characterizing their biophysical properties and imaging them using ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging. Gas vesicles can be isolated from natural cyanobacterial and haloarchaeal host organisms or from E. coli expressing a heterologous gas vesicle gene cluster, and purified using buoyancy-assisted techniques. They can then be modified by replacing surface-bound proteins with engineered, heterologously expressed variants, or through chemical conjugation, resulting in altered mechanical, surface and targeting properties. Pressurized absorbance spectroscopy is used to characterize their mechanical properties, while dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy are used to determine nanoparticle size and morphology, respectively. Gas vesicles can then be imaged with ultrasound in vitro and in vivo using pulse sequences optimized for their detection versus background. They can also be imaged with hyperpolarized xenon MRI using chemical exchange saturation transfer between gas vesicle-bound and dissolved xenon – a technique currently implemented in vitro. Taking 3–8 days to prepare, these genetically encodable nanostructures enable multi-modal, noninvasive biological imaging with high sensitivity and potential for molecular targeting.

Ultrasound imaging is widely used to probe the mechanical structure of tissues and visualize blood flow. However, the ability of ultrasound to observe specific molecular and cellular signals is limited. Recently, a unique class of gas-filled protein nanostructures called gas vesicles (GVs) was introduced as nanoscale ($250 nm) contrast agents for ultrasound, accompanied by the possibilities of genetic engineering, imaging of targets outside the vasculature and monitoring of cellular signals such as gene expression. These possibilities would be aided by methods to discriminate GV-generated ultrasound signals from anatomical background. Here, we show that the nonlinear response of engineered GVs to acoustic pressure enables selective imaging of these nanostructures using a tailored amplitude modulation strategy. Finite element modeling predicted a strongly nonlinear mechanical deformation and acoustic response to ultrasound in engineered GVs. This response was confirmed with ultrasound measurements in the range of 10 to 25 MHz. An amplitude modulation pulse sequence based on this nonlinear response allows engineered GVs to be distinguished from linear scatterers and other GV types with a contrast ratio greater than 11.5 dB. We demonstrate the effectiveness of this nonlinear imaging strategy in vitro, in cellulo, and in vivo. Published by AIP Publishing. [http://dx

Noninvasive biological imaging requires materials capable of interacting with deeply penetrant forms of energy such as magnetic fields and sound waves. Here, we show that gas vesicles, a unique class of gas-filled protein nanostructures with differential magnetic susceptibility relative to water, can produce robust contrast in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at sub-nanomolar concentrations, and that this contrast can be inactivated with ultrasound in situ to enable background-free imaging. We demonstrate this capability in vitro, in cells expressing these nanostructures as genetically encoded reporters, and in three model in vivo scenarios. Genetic variants of gas vesicles, differing in their magnetic or mechanical phenotypes, allow multiplexed imaging using parametric MRI and differential acoustic sensitivity. Additionally, clustering-induced changes in MRI contrast enable the design of dynamic molecular sensors. By coupling the complementary physics of MRI and ultrasound, this nanomaterial gives rise to a distinct modality for molecular imaging with unique advantages and capabilities.

The study of cellular processes occurring inside intact organisms requires methods to visualize cellular functions such as gene expression in deep tissues. Ultrasound is a widely used biomedical technology enabling noninvasive imaging with high spatial and temporal resolution. However, no genetically encoded molecular reporters are available to connect ultrasound contrast to gene expression in mammalian cells. To address this limitation, we introduce mammalian acoustic reporter genes. Starting with a gene cluster derived from bacteria, we engineered a eukaryotic genetic program whose introduction into mammalian cells results in the expression of intracellular air-filled protein nanostructures called gas vesicles, which produce ultrasound contrast. Mammalian acoustic reporter genes allow cells to be visualized at volumetric densities below 0.5% and permit high-resolution imaging of gene expression in living animals.

Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, is a Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium. B. anthracis virulence is ascribed mainly to a secreted tripartite AB-type toxin composed of three proteins designated protective Ag (PA), lethal factor, and edema factor. PA assembles with the enzymatic portions of the toxin, the metalloprotease lethal factor, and/or the adenylate cyclase edema factor, to generate lethal toxin (LTx) and edema toxin (ETx), respectively. These toxins enter cells through the interaction of PA with specific cell surface receptors. The anthrax toxins act to suppress innate immune responses and, given the importance of human neutrophils in innate immunity, they are likely relevant targets of the anthrax toxin. We have investigated in detail the effects of B. anthracis toxin on superoxide production by primary human neutrophils. Both LTx and ETx exhibit distinct inhibitory effects on fMLP (and C5a) receptor-mediated superoxide production, but have no effect on PMA nonreceptor-dependent superoxide production. These inhibitory effects cannot be accounted for by induction of neutrophil death, or by changes in stimulatory receptor levels. Analysis of NADPH oxidase regulation using whole cell and cell-free systems suggests that the toxins do not exert direct effects on NADPH oxidase components, but rather act via their respective effects, inhibition of MAPK signaling (LTx), and elevation of intracellular cAMP (ETx), to inhibit upstream signaling components mediating NADPH oxidase assembly and/or activation. Our results demonstrate that anthrax toxins effectively suppress human neutrophil-mediated innate immunity by inhibiting their ability to generate superoxide for bacterial killing.

The study of cellular processes occurring inside intact organisms and the development of cell-based diagnostic and therapeutic agents requires methods to visualize cellular functions such as gene expression in deep tissues. Ultrasound is a widely used biomedical technology enabling deep-tissue imaging with high spatial and temporal resolution. However, no genetically encoded molecular reporters are available to connect ultrasound contrast to gene expression in mammalian cells. To address this limitation, we introduce the first mammalian acoustic reporter genes. Starting with an eleven-gene polycistronic gene cluster derived from bacteria, we engineered a eukaryotic genetic program whose introduction into mammalian cells results in the expression of a unique class of intracellular air-filled protein nanostructures called gas vesicles. The scattering of ultrasound by these nanostructures allows mammalian cells to be visualized at volumetric densities below 0.5%, enables the monitoring of dynamic circuit-driven gene expression, and permits high-resolution imaging of gene expression in living animals. These mammalian acoustic reporter genes enable previously impossible approaches to monitoring the location, viability and function of mammalian cells in vivo.