The role of chloride in photosystem II (PSII) is unclear. Using structural information from PSII and a careful comparison with other chloride-activated enzymes, we proposed a role for chloride at the D2-K317 site in PSII [Pokhrel, R., et al. (2011) Biochemistry 50, 2725-2734]. To probe the role of chloride at this site, the D2-K317R, D2-K317A, D2-K317Q, and D2-K317E mutations were created in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Purified PSII from the mutants was probed with Fourier transform infrared difference spectroscopy, demonstrating that compared to PSII from wild-type Synechocystis, PSII from all four mutants exhibit changes in the conformations of the polypeptide backbone and carboxylate groups. However, D2-K317R PSII exhibits minor changes, whereas D2-K317A, D2-K317Q, and D2-K317E PSII exhibit more substantial changes in polypeptide conformations. Steady-state oxygen-evolution measurements of purified PSII core complexes show that the oxygen-evolution activity of D2-K317A is independent of chloride. This is consistent with the loss of the chloride requirement when the charged K residue is replaced with an uncharged residue that no longer binds to an essential carboxylate (D1-D61) in the absence of chloride, analogous to observations in other chloride-activated enzymes. In contrast, the oxygen-evolution activity of D2-K317R is sensitive to the chloride concentration in the assay buffer; the effective KD for chloride binding is higher in D2-K317R than in wild-type PSII, possibly because of a less optimal binding site in the mutant. The S2 states of wild-type, D2-K317A, and D2-K317R PSII were probed using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. A g = 2 multiline signal, similar to the wild-type signal, was observed for D2-K317A and D2-K317R. However, a g = 4 signal was also observed for D2-K317R. Measurements of flash-dependent O2 yields showed that D2-K317A and D2-K317R have a higher miss factor than wild-type PSII. The oxygen-release kinetics of D2-K317A and D2-K317R were slower than those of the wild type, in the following order: D2-K317A < D2-K317R < wild type. These results collectively suggest that proton transfer is inefficient in D2-K317A and D2-K317R, thereby giving rise to a higher miss factor and slower oxygen-release kinetics.
The S0 → S1 transition of the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) of photosystem II is one of the least understood steps in the Kok cycle of water splitting. We introduce a quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) model of the S0 state that is consistent with extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction data. In conjunction with the QM/MM model of the S1 state, we address the proton-coupled electron-transfer (PCET) process that occurs during the S0 → S1 transition, where oxidation of a Mn center and deprotonation of a μ-oxo bridge lead to a significant rearrangement in the OEC. A hydrogen bonding network, linking the D1-D61 residue to a Mn-bound water molecule, is proposed to facilitate the PCET mechanism.
Chloride binding in photosystem II (PSII) is essential for photosynthetic water oxidation. However, the functional roles of chloride and possible binding sites, during oxygen evolution, remain controversial. This paper examines the functions of chloride based on its binding site revealed in the X-ray crystal structure of PSII at 1.9 Å resolution. We find that chloride depletion induces formation of a salt-bridge between D2-K317 and D1-D61 that could suppress proton transfer to the lumen.
Manganese oxides are a highly promising class of water-oxidation catalysts (WOCs), but the optimal MnOx formulation or polymorph is not clear from previous reports in the literature. A complication not limited to MnOx-based WOCs is that such catalysts are routinely evaluated by different methods, ranging from the use of a chemical oxidant such as Ce(4+), photoactive mediators such as [Ru(bpy)3](2+), or electrochemical techniques. Here, we report a systematic study of nine crystalline MnOx materials as WOCs and show that the identity of the "best" catalyst changes, depending on the oxidation method used to probe the catalytic activity.
Water oxidation at the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) of photosystem II (PSII) involves multiple redox states called Sn states (n = 0-4). The S1 → S2 redox transition of the OEC has been studied extensively using various forms of spectroscopy, including electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. In the S2 state, two isomers of the OEC are observed by EPR: a ST = 1/2 form and a ST = 5/2 form. DFT-based structural models of the OEC have been proposed for the two spin isomers in the S2 state, but the factors that determine the stability of one form or the other are not known. Using structural information on the OEC and its surroundings, in conjunction with spectroscopic information available on the S1 → S2 transition for a variety of site-directed mutations, Ca(2+) and Cl(-) substitutions, and small molecule inhibitors, we propose that the hydrogen-bonding network encompassing D1-D61 and the OEC-bound waters plays an important role in stabilizing one spin isomer over the other. In the presence of ammonia, PSII centers can be trapped in either the ST = 5/2 form after a 200 K illumination procedure or an ammonia-altered ST = 1/2 form upon annealing at 273 K. We propose a mechanism for ammonia binding to the OEC in the S2 state that takes into account the hydrogen-binding requirements for ammonia binding and the specificity for binding of ammonia but not methylamine. A discussion regarding the possibility of spin isomers of the OEC in the S1 state, analogous to the spin isomers of the S2 state, is also presented.
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