Neo-institutional approaches to the study of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) suggest that as more NGOs cooperate with the state, they become isomorphic in their structures and processes. Such cooperation is expected to threaten inventiveness of the NGO sector, including its spontaneity, variety, and unpredictability. This article analyzes the internal institutional processes of three leading housing NGOs as they each implemented cooperative strategies with the state in Mumbai, India. It finds that, contrary to customary apprehensions, NGOs use different tactics in response to the same public policy environment. The article argues that pervasive isomorphism is constrained by path dependency and variability in resource environments.

Relationships between nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and government agencies have been variously described in the nonprofit literature as cooperative, complementary, adversarial, confrontational, or even co-optive T HIS ARTICLE EXAMINES THE RELATIONSHIPS between government organizations and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)working on issues of urban housing. In particular, it examines how NGOs build and adapt their relationships with the state to fulfill their goals. Drawing on concepts and classifications from the literature on social movements, nonprofit management, and institutional theory, we add two layers of complexity to existing characterizations of NGO-government interactions: (1) NGOs with similar goals of defending the housing rights of the poor may rely on different strategies and tactics to advance their housing agendas with the state, Note: We are grateful to Neema Kudva for her detailed comments on an earlier version of this article. We also thank three anonymous reviewers of this journal for their valuable suggestions. All of the usual caveats apply.

This article examines an important but relatively overlooked aspect in the field of international giving in the U.S.-individual monetary donations to Christian faith-related international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs)-and outlines the cognitive process influencing donors who choose to keep up their financial support to Christian faith-related INGOs. The propositions forwarded in this article draw on existing literature on Christian giving to international causes, INGO management, donor retention and finally, the logic of self-perception to highlight how existing donors might evaluate their repeat giving decision. The more existing donors of Christian faith-related INGOs can identify themselves with the INGO's identity-comprising its beliefs and values, its claims to legitimacy, and performance-the more likely it is for donors to be satisfied and decide to maintain a stable relationship with the specific INGO.

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