IntroductionFollowing trauma and systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS), the typical response is an elevation of the total complete blood count (CBC) and a reduction of the lymphocyte count. This leukocytosis typically returns to normal within 48 hours. The persistence of a leukocytosis following trauma is associated with adverse outcomes. Although lymphocyte anergy and dysfunction following trauma is associated with increased risk for infection and sepsis, there is a paucity of data regarding the impact of a persistence of a low lymphocyte count in trauma patients.MethodsThis is a retrospective review of prospectively collected data from trauma patients collected over the 5 years of September 2003 to September 2008. Patients were included if the injury severity score (ISS) was >/=15, and they survived at least 3 days. Demographic data, mechanism and injury severity score, mortality, and length of stay were collected from the medical record. Laboratory values for the first 4 hospital days were collected. Leukocyte, neutrophil and lymphocyte counts were extracted from the daily complete blood count (CBC). Patients were then grouped based on response (elevation/depression) of each component of the CBC, and their return, or failure thereof, to normal. Proportional hazards regression with time-varying covariates as well as Kaplan-Meier curves were used to predict risk of death, time to death and time to healthy discharge based on fluctuations of the individual components of the CBC.ResultsThere were 2448 patients admitted over the 5 years included in the analysis. When adjusting for age, gender and ISS the relative risk of death was elevated with a persistent leukocytosis (2.501 (95% CI = 1.477-4.235)) or failure to normalize lymphopenia (1.639 (95% CI = 10.17-2.643)) within the first 4 days following admission. Similar results were seen when Kaplan-Meier curves were created. Persistent lymphopenia was associated with shortest time to death. Paradoxically in survivors persistent lymphopenia was associated with the shortest time to discharge.ConclusionsPersistently abnormal CBC responses are associated with a higher mortality following trauma. This is the first report noting that a failure to normalize lymphopenia in severely injured patients is associated with significantly higher mortality.
Vital signs on presentation are less predictive of mortality in geriatric blunt trauma victims. Geriatric blunt trauma patients warrant increased vigilance despite normal vital signs on presentation. New trauma triage set points of HR >90 or SBP <110 mm Hg should be considered in the geriatric blunt trauma patients.
IMPORTANCE It is unknown whether smartphone-based virtual reality (VR) games are effective in reducing pain among pediatric patients in real-world burn clinics. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the efficacy of a smartphone VR game on dressing pain among pediatric patients with burns. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This randomized clinical trial included children aged 6 to 17 years who seen in the outpatient clinic of a large American Burn Association-verified pediatric burn center and level I pediatric trauma center between
Unresolved inflammation in the lung is thought to elicit loss of endothelial cell (EC) barrier integrity and impaired lung function. We have shown, in a mouse model of shock/sepsis, that neutrophil interactions with resident pulmonary cells appear central to the pathogenesis of indirect acute lung injury (iALI). Normally, EC growth factors angiopoietin (Ang)-1 and Ang-2 maintain vascular homeostasis through tightly regulated interaction with the kinase receptor Tie2 expressed on ECs. Although Ang-1/Tie2 has been shown to promote vessel integrity, stimulating downstream prosurvival/antiinflammatory signaling, Ang-2, released from activated ECs, is reported to promote vessel destabilization. This mechanism of regulation, together with recent clinical findings that plasma Ang-2 levels are significantly elevated in patients who develop acute respiratory distress syndrome, has focused our investigation on the contribution of Ang-2 to the development of iALI. A murine model of hemorrhagic shock-induced priming for the development of iALI after subsequent septic challenge was used in this study. Our findings show that 1) Ang-2 is elevated in our experimental model for iALI, 2) direct EC/neutrophil interactions contribute significantly to EC Ang-2 release, and 3) suppression of Ang-2 significantly decreases inflammatory lung injury, neutrophil influx, and lung and plasma IL-6 and TNF-α. These findings support our hypothesis and suggest that Ang-2 plays a role in the loss of pulmonary EC barrier function in the development of iALI in mice resultant from the sequential insults of hemorrhagic shock and sepsis and that this is mediated by EC interaction with activated neutrophils.
Objective To determine the contribution of PD-1 in the morbidity and mortality associated with the development of indirect-acute lung injury Summary Background Data The immune cell interaction(s) leading to indirect-acute lung injury are not completely understood. In this respect, while we have recently shown that the murine cell surface co-inhibitory receptor, Programmed Cell death receptor (PD)-1, has a role in septic morbidity/mortality that is mediated in part through the effects on the innate immune arm. However, it is not know if PD-1 has a role in the development of indirect-acute lung injury and how this may be mediated at a cellular level. Methods PD-1 −/− mice were used in a murine model of indirect-acute lung injury (hemorrhagic shock followed 24 h after with cecal ligation & puncture-septic challenge) and compared to wild type controls. Groups were initially compared for survival and subsequently for markers of pulmonary inflammation, influx of lymphocytes and neutrophils, and expression of PD-1 and its ligand, PD-L1. In addition, peripheral blood leukocytes of patients with indirect-acute lung injury were examined to assess changes in cellular PD-1 expression relative to mortality. Results PD-1 −/− mice showed improved survival compared to wild type controls. In the mouse lung, CD4+, CD11c+ and Gr-1+ cells showed increased PD-1 expression in response to indirect-acute lung injury. However, while the rise in BAL fluid protein concentrations, lung IL-6, and lung MCP-1 were similar between PD-1 −/− and wild type animals subjected to indirect acute lung injury, the PD-1 −/− animals that were subjected to shock/septic challenge had reduced CD4:CD8 ratios, TNF-α levels, MPO activity, and caspase 3 levels in the lung. Comparatively, we observed that humans, who survived their acute lung injury, had significantly lower expression of PD-1 on T cells. Conclusions PD-1 expression contributes to mortality following the induction of indirect-acute lung injury and this appears to be associated with modifications in the cellular and cytokine profiles in the lung.
An extremely complex interplay exists between socioethnic factors and outcomes after TBI. Few physicians would claim overt discrimination. Tracheostomy, the factor most directed by the surgeon, was unbiased by race, income, or insurance status. The likelihood of placement in a rehabilitation center was significantly impacted by both race and insurance status. Future prospective studies are needed to better address causation.
Programmed death 1 (PD-1) is an inhibitor protein receptor for the immune system and has been shown to be upregulated in animal models of critical illness as well as after trauma and in burn victims in humans. It is believed that PD-1 may play a role in the immune dysfunction seen in surgical critical illness. However, although prior studies have associated changes in PD-1 expression with altered immune cell function, it is not known if a correlation with clinical status exists. We therefore aimed to describe a potential role for PD-1 in the immune dysfunction seen in critically ill trauma and surgical patients. This is an observational cohort study. Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) scores were calculated on critically ill and injured trauma and surgical intensive care unit patients from a tertiary care/level I trauma center. Blood was drawn within 24 h of establishment of diagnosis and admission to the intensive care unit to measure circulating cytokine levels, as well as PD-1 expression on circulating cells. Main outcome measures included PD-1 expression on leukocytes and the relationship to physiological dysfunction (APACHE II) as well as the correlation of PD-1 expression and interleukin 10 levels among patients with severe physiological dysfunction. Samples were collected from 90 critically ill surgical patients. Among patients with severe physiological dysfunction (APACHE II >20), there were increased numbers of granulocytes (median, 144 vs. 90 cells/μL; P = 0.037) and monocytes (median, 12 vs. 6 cells/μL; P = 0.022) with PD-1 expression. In addition, among patients with an APACHE II score of greater than 20, there was a larger percentage of CD3 cells (44% vs. 29%; P = 0.015) expressing PD-1. When only patients with an APACHE II score greater than 20 were assessed, PD-1 expression on monocytes correlated positively with interleukin levels in the serum (r = 0.525, P = 0.05). Variability in the expression of PD-1 on leukocytes in critical surgical illness correlates with physiological dysfunction and suggests that PD-1 may be a valuable tool in the assessment of immune dysfunction following trauma or severe surgical insult.
Objective Indirect acute lung injury (ALI) is associated with high morbidity/ mortality. However, the underlying pathophysiology is only marginally understood and so far no pathophysiologic based remedy exists. We hypothesized, that apoptosis of lung epithelial cells is a pathophysiological relevant process in the development of indirect ALI and that it should be accessible to a small interfering (si)RNA based therapeutic intervention in vivo. Design Prospective, randomized, controlled animal study. Setting Basic science laboratory of a university affiliated level-1 trauma center. Subjects Male C3H/HeN mice, 8 weeks old, n=121 Interventions First, siRNA sequences to knock down caspase-3 expression at a RNA as well as protein level were evaluated in vitro. Then, C3H/HeN mice were subjected to hemorrhagic shock, following which they received either a caspase-3 siRNA or a control/nonsense siRNA. Subsequently, they were then subjected to polymicrobial sepsis (induced by cecal ligation and puncture). Measurements and Main Results Twelve and 24 hours after sepsis increased lung epithelial apoptosis, as evidenced by active caspase-3 western blotting, caspase-3-, TUNEL- and M30 immunohistochemistry, was observed. Hallmarks of ALI, such as increased concentrations of pulmonary cytokines/chemokines, lung protein leakage, myeloperoxidase activity and altered lung histology, were evident in response to these insults. The single intratracheal instillation of caspase-3 siRNA not only attenuated lung apoptosis and inflammation, but also ameliorated the development of ALI in treated mice. Most interestingly, this experimental therapeutic approach markedly improved 10 day survival of hemorrhaged-septic mice. Conclusions Apoptosis of lung epithelial cells is a relevant pathomechanism in the development of hemorrhage-induced indirect septic ALI, and caspase-3 appears to be a valuable therapeutic target, accessible by siRNA treatment in vivo.
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