In case of Diabetic Retinopathy, retina is damaged because of fluid leaks from blood vessels into the retina. According to ophthalmologists, some basic features are there to recognize diabetic retinopathy, such as blood vessel area, exudates, hemorrhages, micro-aneurysms and texture. Presence of exudates within the macular region is a main hallmark of diabetic which identifies its detection with a high sensitivity.Hence, detection of exudates is an important diagnostic task that can be determined by means of morphological techniques for better result. Here image segmentation has done to detect Diabetic Retinopathy by extracting exudate from retinal fundus images. Here the final extracted exudates contained the boundaries of proper segmented regions which can identify the severity of disease. Using Wavelet Transform decomposition method and morphological operations the feature like exudate is possible to extract from retinal fundus image to detect Diabetic Retinopathy. Here 4 datasets have been taken such as STARE, DRIVE, DIARETDB1 and DIARETDB0 for extraction of exudate from retinal image in which the proposed method obtained an average value of accuracy at 95.72%, sensitivity at 95.87% and specificity at 96.2% respectively.
Seagrasses are considered as efficient bioindicators of coastal trace element contamination. This chapter provides an overview on the trace element accumulation, tolerance and biomonitoring capacity of the various seagrass species distributed along the coast of India. A total of 10 trace elements are reported in seagrasses, 11 in sediment and nine in the water column from India. From the 11 seagrass species studied, 60% of research have focused on Syringodium isoetifolium, Cymodocea serrulata, Cymodocea rotundata and Halophila ovalis. 78% of seagrass trace element research in India is from Palk bay and Gulf of Mannar (GOM), Tamil Nadu and 16% from Lakshadweep Islands. Out of the 10 trace elements, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn are the most studied in seagrass, Fe, Mn, Ni and Pb in sediment and Cu, Fe, Mg, Ni and Zn in the water column. Accumulation capacity of various trace elements in seagrass were species-specific. S. isoetifolium have the highest concentration of Cd and Mg at Palk bay and Lakshadweep Islands respectively. The concentration of Cu was higher in C. serrulata at GOM. Halodule uninervis and Halophila decipens have the highest concentration of Co, and Cr, Ni, Pb and Zn from Lakshadweep Islands. The highest concentration of Fe and Mn were highest in Halophila beccarii and H. ovalis from the coast of Goa and Palk bay respectively. Threshold levels (>10 mg L-1) of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn were observed for C. serrulata, H. ovalis, H. uninervis and T. hemprichii, that can affect the Photo System -II of these seagrasses and exert cellular stress leading to seagrass loss and die-off. High concentration of these elements can exert negative impacts on seagrass associated trophic assemblages and ecosystem functioning. Seagrasses of India can be utilized as bioindicators of coastal trace element contamination but the associated toxicity and human health risks needs further investigation.
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