The Internet transport infrastructure is moving toward a model of high-speed routers interconnected by intelligent optical core networks. A consensus is emerging in the industry on utilizing an IP-centric control plane within optical networks to support dynamic provisioning and restoration of lightpaths. At the same time, there are divergent views on how IP routers must interact with optical core networks to achieve end-to-end connectivity. This article describes the architectural alternatives for interconnecting IP routers over optical networks, considering the routing and signaling issues. Also, the application of IP-based protocols for dynamic provisioning and restoration of lightpaths, as well as the interworking of multivendor optical networks is described.
SummaryVehicular ad hoc network (VANET) has earned tremendous attraction in the recent period due to its usage in a wireless intelligent transportation system. VANET is a unique form of mobile ad hoc network (MANET). Routing issues such as high mobility of nodes, frequent path breaks, the blind broadcasting of messages, and bandwidth constraints in VANET increase communication cost, frequent path failure, and overhead and decrease efficiency in routing, and shortest path in routing provides solutions to overcome all these problems. Finding the shortest path between source and destination in the VANET road scenario is a challenging task. Long path increases network overhead, communication cost, and frequent path failure and decreases routing efficiency. To increase efficiency in routing a novel, improved distance‐based ant colony optimization routing (IDBACOR) is proposed. The proposed IDBACOR determines intervehicular distance, and it is triggered by modified ant colony optimization (modified ACO). The modified ACO method is a metaheuristic approach, motivated by the natural behavior of ants. The simulation result indicates that the overall performance of our proposed scheme is better than ant colony optimization (ACO), opposition‐based ant colony optimization (OACO), and greedy routing with ant colony optimization (GRACO) in terms of throughput, average communication cost, average propagation delay, average routing overhead, and average packet delivery ratio.
Summary Due to the ad hoc nature of vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs), routing in VANETs is challenging. Using an energy‐efficient shortest path without congestion (EESPWC) increases routing efficiency by satisfying specific parameters (high throughput, high packet delivery ratio, low overhead, low end‐to‐end delay, low packet loss ratio, and low energy consumption). In this work, enhanced distance and residual energy‐based congestion aware ant colony optimization (EDR‐CAACO) for VANETs is proposed to find an EESPWC. The proposed EESPWC produces high throughput and high packet delivery ratio with low overhead and low delay. In EDR‐CAACO, the roulette wheel selects the EESPWC based on the link's fitness values. The fitness value is computed based on the pheromone level of the link. The enhanced ACO (ant colony optimization) of the proposed model relies on the distance, residual, and congestion levels of the vehicles to estimate pheromone levels. For path selection, the roulette wheel relies on links that have the highest fitness value. The combination of high fitness value links provides an energy‐efficient non‐congested shortest route. The simulation results prove that the overall performance of EDR‐CAACO is better than Improved Distance Based Ant Colony Optimization Routing (IDBACOR), Fuzzy‐based Ant colony optimization (F‐ANT), ant colony optimization routing algorithm (ARA), and AntNet in terms of throughput, routing overhead, packet delivery ratio, end to end delay, and packet loss rate.
Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) demands reliable communication mechanisms for time-critical communication between vehicles. In VANETs, communication links between vehicles are prone to frequent breaks due to high mobility and topology changes. In this context, this work presents an enhanced bio-inspired routing algorithm (EBIRA) to provide reliable communication. In EBIRA, enhanced ant colony optimization (EACO) finds the optimal long-life short-distance routes with the minimum hops based on distance, received signal strength metric, hop count, and evaporation rate. In EBIRA, the selected path has a short distance and a high level of connectivity at the link level with minimum hops. Choosing the shortest path through minimum hops with high connectivity level links improves route lifetime and reduces frequent link breaks between vehicles. Simulation results show that the performance of EBIRA is better than reliable route discovery by using ant colony optimization (RDACO) and road-aware geographic routing protocol (RAGR) in terms of packet delivery ratio, throughput, and latency. Furthermore, variations of the received signal strength based on vehicle density and speed are evaluated, and the EBIRA route discovery success ratio is estimated and shown based on vehicle density at speed. HIGHLIGHTS Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) demands reliable communication mechanisms for time-critical communication between vehicles. In VANETs, communication links between vehicles are prone to frequent breaks due to high mobility and topology changes VANET routing faces various challenges due to its unique characteristics such as high mobility, dynamic topology, unlimited network size, no infrastructure, and wireless communication Choosing the shortest path through minimum hops with high connectivity level links improves route lifetime and reduces frequent link breaks between vehicles The Less complexity, adaptability and self-organizing characteristics of ACO can cope with frequent topology changes, high mobility, absence of infrastructure, and wireless communication. The robustness feature of the ACO often helps to overcome network interruptions in the form of disconnections GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
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