Most events promoting early melanoma development are yet to be identified but deregulation of the B-Raf and Akt3 signaling cascades are important regulators of this process. Approximately 90% of normal moles and ~60% of early invasive cutaneous melanomas contain a T1799A B-Raf mutation (V600EB-Raf), leading to 10X higher enzyme activity and constitutive activation of the MAP kinase pathway. Furthermore, ~70% of melanomas have elevated Akt3 signaling due to increased gene copy number and PTEN loss. Therefore, targeting V600EB-Raf and Akt3 signaling is necessary to prevent or treat cutaneous melanocytic lesions. Agents specifically targeting these proteins are needed, having fewer side effects than those inhibiting both normal and mutant B-Raf protein or targeting all three Akt isoforms. In this study, a unique nanoliposomal-ultrasound mediated approach has been developed for delivering siRNA specifically targeting V600EB-Raf and Akt3 into melanocytic tumors present in skin to retard melanoma development. Novel cationic nanoliposomes stably encapsulate siRNA targeting V600EB-Raf or Akt3, providing protection from degradation and facilitating entry into melanoma cells to decrease expression of these proteins. Low-frequency ultrasound using a lightweight 4-cymbal transducer array enables penetration of nanoliposomal-siRNA complex throughout epidermal and dermal layers of laboratory-generated or animal skin. Nanoliposomal-mediated siRNA targeting of V600EB-Raf and Akt3 led to a cooperatively acting ~65% decrease in early or invasive cutaneous melanoma compared to inhibition of each singly with negligible associated systemic toxicity. Thus, cationic nanoliposomes loaded with siRNA targeting V600EB-Raf and Akt3 provide an effective approach for targeted inhibition of early or invasive cutaneous melanomas.

Leelamine is a promising compound for the treatment of cancer; however, the molecular mechanisms leading to leelamine-mediated cell death have not been identified. This report shows that leelamine is a weakly basic amine with lysosomotropic properties, leading to its accumulation inside acidic organelles such as lysosomes. This accumulation leads to homeostatic imbalance in the lysosomal endosomal cell compartments that disrupts autophagic flux and intracellular cholesterol trafficking as well as receptor-mediated endocytosis. Electron micrographs of leelamine-treated cancer cells displayed accumulation of autophagosomes, membrane whorls, and lipofuscin-like structures, indicating disruption of lysosomal cell compartments. Early in the process, leelamine-mediated killing was a caspase-independent event triggered by cholesterol accumulation, as depletion of cholesterol using β-cyclodextrin treatment attenuated the cell death and restored the subcellular structures identified by electron microscopy. Protein microarray–based analyses of the intracellular signaling cascades showed alterations in RTK–AKT/STAT/MAPK signaling cascades, which was subsequently confirmed by Western blotting. Inhibition of Akt, Erk, and Stat signaling, together with abnormal deregulation of receptor tyrosine kinases, was caused by the inhibition of receptor-mediated endocytosis. This study is the first report demonstrating that leelamine is a lysosomotropic, intracellular cholesterol transport inhibitor with potential chemotherapeutic properties leading to inhibition of autophagic flux and induction of cholesterol accumulation in lysosomal/endosomal cell compartments. Importantly, the findings of this study show the potential of leelamine to disrupt cholesterol homeostasis for treatment of advanced-stage cancers.

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Melanoma is a highly metastatic and deadly disease. An agent simultaneously targeting COX-2, PI3K/Akt and MAPK signaling pathways that are deregulated in up to 70% of sporadic melanoma might be an effective treatment but no agent of this type exists. To develop a single drug inhibiting COX-2 and PI3K/Akt signaling (and increasing MAPK pathway activity to inhibitory levels as a result of Akt inhibition), a selenium-containing glutathione (GSH) analog of celecoxib, called selenocoxib-1-GSH was synthesized. It killed melanoma cells with an average IC50 of 7.66 µmol/L compared to control celecoxib at 55.6 µmol/L. The IC50 range for normal cells was 36.3–41.2 µmol/L compared to 7.66 µmol/L for cancer cells. Selenocoxib-1-GSH reduced xenografted tumor development by ~70% with negligible toxicity by targeting COX-2, like celecoxib, and having new inhibitory properties acting as a PI3K/Akt inhibitor (and MAPK pathway activator to inhibitory levels due to Akt inhibition). The consequence of this inhibitory activity was an ~80% decrease in cultured cell proliferation and a ~200% increase in apoptosis following 24 hours treatment with 15.5 µmol/L of drug. Thus, this study details development of selenocoxib-1-GSH, which is a non-toxic agent that targets the COX-2 and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways in melanomas to inhibit tumor development.

No abstract

SUMMARY Reprogrammed metabolism and cell cycle dysregulation are two cancer hallmarks. p16 is a cell cycle inhibitor and tumor suppressor that is upregulated during oncogene-induced senescence (OIS). Loss of p16 allows for uninhibited cell cycle progression, bypass of OIS, and tumorigenesis. Whether p16 loss affects pro-tumorigenic metabolism is unclear. We report that suppression of p16 plays a central role in reprogramming metabolism by increasing nucleotide synthesis. This occurs by activation of mTORC1 signaling, which directly mediates increased translation of the mRNA encoding ribose-5-phosphate isomerase A ( RPIA ), a pentose phosphate pathway enzyme. p16 loss correlates with activation of the mTORC1-RPIA axis in multiple cancer types. Suppression of RPIA inhibits proliferation only in p16-low cells by inducing senescence both in vitro and in vivo . These data reveal the molecular basis whereby p16 loss modulates pro-tumorigenic metabolism through mTORC1-mediated upregulation of nucleotide synthesis and reveals a metabolic vulnerability of p16-null cancer cells.

Melanoma is a highly drug resistant cancer with resistance developing to agents targeting single proteins. To circumvent this problem, a new class of agent inhibiting multiple key pathways important in this disease is being developed to reduce the likelihood of developing resistant disease. The PI3 kinase (PI3K), MAP kinase (MAPK) and STAT3 pathways are constitutively activated in 50–70% of melanomas promoting disease development. To identify a drug simultaneously targeting the PI3K, MAPK and STAT3 cascades, a natural product library was screened to identifying leelamine as a potential inhibitor. Leelamine was 4.5-fold more effective at inhibiting cultured melanoma cell survival than normal cells, with average IC50 values of 2 and 9.3 µmol/L, respectively. It inhibited cellular proliferation at a concentration of 2.5 µmol/L by 40–80% and longer exposure increased apoptosis 600% through a mechanism detailed in the article in the current issue of this journal by Kuzu OF et al. Leelamine inhibited the growth of preexisting xenografted melanoma tumors by an average of 60% by targeting the PI3K, MAPK and STAT3 pathways without affecting animal body weight or blood markers of major organ function. The mechanism of action of leelamine is mediated by disruption of cholesterol transport, causing decreased cellular proliferation and, consequently leading to increased tumor cell apoptosis as well as decreased tumor vascularization. Thus, a unique agent and novel mechanism of action has been identified for the treatment of melanoma that acts by inhibiting the activity of three major signaling pathways regulating the development of this disease.

Malignant melanoma is a difficult cancer to treat due to the rapid development of resistance to drugs targeting single proteins. One response to this observation is to identify single pharmacological agents that due to a unique mechanism of action simultaneously target multiple key pathways involved in melanoma development. To develop a single nanoparticle-based agent targeting the PI3 kinase, STAT3 and MAP kinase signaling pathways, a natural product library was screened, identifying leelamine, as a potential inhibitor. To overcome the poor bioavailability of leelamine in animals and lethality when administered intravenously, a nanoliposomal-based delivery system has been developed called Nanolipolee-007, which stably loads 60% of the compound. The nanoparticle was as effective at killing melanoma cells as leelamine dissolved in DMSO and was 4.5-fold more effective at killing cultured melanoma cell survival compared to normal cells. Mechanistically, Nanolipolee-007 inhibited PI3K/Akt, STAT3 and MAPK signaling mediated through inhibition of cholesterol transport shutting down these key pathways. Nanolipolee-007 inhibited the growth of preexisting xenografted melanoma tumors by an average of 64% by decreasing cellular proliferation, reducing tumor vascularization, and increasing cellular apoptosis, with negligible toxicity. Thus, a unique clinical viable nanoparticle based drug has been developed containing leelamine for the treatment of melanoma that acts by inhibiting the activity of major signaling pathways regulating the development of this disease.