Traditionally users access their personal files mainly by using folder navigation. We evaluate whether recent improvements in desktop search have changed this fundamental aspect of Personal Information Management (PIM). We tested this in two studies using the same questionnaire: (a) The Windows Study-a longitudinal comparison of Google Desktop and Windows XP Search Companion, and (b) The Mac Study-a large scale comparison of Mac Spotlight and Sherlock.There were few effects for improved search. First, regardless of search engine, there was a strong navigation preference: on average, users estimated that they used navigation for 56-68% of file retrieval events but searched for only 4-15% of events. Second, the effect of improving the quality of the search engine on search usage was limited and inconsistent. Third, search was used mainly as a last resort when users could not remember file location. Finally, there was no evidence that using improved desktop search engines leads people to change their filing habits to become less reliant on hierarchical file organization. We conclude by offering theoretical explanations for navigation preference, relating to differences between PIM and Internet retrieval, and suggest alternative design directions for PIM systems.

Folder navigation is the main way that personal computer users retrieve their own files. People dedicate considerable time to creating systematic structures to facilitate such retrieval. Despite the prevalence of both manual organization and navigation, there is very little systematic data about how people actually carry out navigation, or about the relation between organization structure and retrieval parameters.The aims of our research were therefore to study users' folder structure, personal file navigation, and the relations between them. We asked 296 participants to retrieve 1,131 of their active files and analyzed each of the 5,035 navigation steps in these retrievals. Folder structures were found to be shallow (files were retrieved from mean depth of 2.86 folders), with small folders (a mean of 11.82 files per folder) containing many subfolders (M = 10.64). Navigation was largely successful and efficient with participants successfully accessing 94% of their files and taking 14.76 seconds to do this on average. Retrieval time and success depended on folder size and depth. We therefore found the users' decision to avoid both deep structure and large folders to be adaptive. Finally, we used a predictive model to

This study examined the effectiveness of 3 online courses compared with the same 3 courses in a face‐to‐face (F2F) format, which had the same characteristics (e.g., the same instructor and final exam content and place). Effectiveness was examined by utilizing a wide range of variables, including 2 objective measures (N = 968): grades and completion rate; and 9 subjective measures (N = 360): 7 measures include instructional aspects (course structure, learning content, lessons watched, assignments, communication), engagement, and satisfaction. Findings indicate significant differences between online and F2F courses in most of the examined variables. Students in the online courses reported better understanding of the course structure, better communication with the course staff, watching the videos lessens more, and higher engagement and satisfaction. Students in the F2F courses reported better contribution of the learning content. Students' final grades were higher in the online courses, and no differences were found in the completion rate. The findings suggest that in many of the examined effectiveness aspects, online courses are as effective as, or more effective than, F2F courses. Interpretations of the findings are discussed.

In this article we suggest a user-subjective approach to Personal Information Management (PIM) system design. This approach advocates that PIM systems relate to the subjective value-added attributes that the user gives to the data stored in the PIM system. These attributes should facilitate system use: help the user find the information item again, recall it when needed, and use it effectively in the next interaction with the item. Driven from the user-subjective approach are three generic principles which are described and discussed: (a) The subjective classification principle, stating that all information items related to the same subjective topic should be classified together regardless of their technological format; (b) The subjective importance principle, proposing that the subjective importance of information should determine its degree of visual salience and accessibility; and (c) The subjective context principle, suggesting that information should be retrieved and viewed by the user in the same context in which it was previously used. We claim that these principles are only sporadically implemented in operating systems currently available on personal computers, and demonstrate alternatives for interface design.

The project fragmentation problem in personal information management occurs when someone who is working on a single project stores and retrieves information items relating to that project from separate format-related collections (documents, emails and favorite Web sites). This study was aimed to test empirically users' working habits in order to shed light on the project fragmentation problem. Twenty personal computer users participated in the study. Data collection tools included an interview, screen captures and a questionnaire. Results indicate that users tend to store and retrieve project-related information items based on different formats in one project folder when the interface design encourages it. However, they store and retrieve projectrelated information items in different folders (documents, emails and favorite Web sites) when the design encourages such fragmentation. Two types of attempts to solve the project fragmentation problem are reviewed and a new possible solution is suggested.

This study investigated the impact of enhanced observation or enhanced prediction on scientific reasoning about heat energy and temperature problems. A microcomputerbased laboratory (MBL) curriculum was designed to develop students' scientific reasoning skills. In two eighth-grade classes the instruction emphasized observation, while in the two other classes instruction emphasized prediction. Research questions included: (a) How do students acquire observation and prediction skills from the MBL (b) Are the cognitive demands for the observation group different from those for (c) Does learning observation and prediction help students use other scientific curriculum? the prediction group? reasoning skills?Using written tests, classroom observations and interviews, we found equal gains for the observation and prediction conditions on (a) subject-matter knowledge, and (b) ability to use scientific reasoning skills to solve problems. In contrast, those learning observation were better observers and those learning prediction became better at predicting results while solving problems.Scientific reasoning includes the ability to (a) define a scientific problem; (b) state a hypothesis; (c) design an experiment; (d) observe, collect, analyze, and interpret data; (e) apply the results; and ( f ) make predictions on the basis of the results. This study assesses results from a microcomputer-based laboratory environment designed to develop such skills, and the consequences of its instruction within this environment.Laboratories offer opportunities to teach scientific reasoning because students can be actively engaged in problem solving while applying their content knowledge (Blosser, 1981). Yet, at present, even in the laboratory most students do not have opportunities to acquire the thinking skills of scientists (Friedler, 1984). The development of new information technologies and their consistent incorporation into the educational system has prompted science educators to revise traditional approaches and set new priorities

Personal Information Management (PIM) is an activity in which an individual stores personal information items to retrieve them later. In a former article, we suggested the user-subjective approach, a theoretical approach proposing design principles with which PIM systems can systematically use subjective attributes of information items. In this consecutive article, we report on a study that tested the approach by exploring the use of subjective attributes (i.e., project, importance, and context) in current PIM systems, and its dependence on design characteristics. Participants were 84 personal computer users. Tools included a questionnaire (N ϭ 84), a semistructured interview that was transcribed and analyzed (n ϭ 20), and screen captures taken from this subsample. Results indicate that participants tended to use subjective attributes when the design encouraged them to; however, when the design discouraged such use, they either found their own alternative ways to use them or refrained from using them altogether. This constitutes evidence in support of the user-subjective approach as it implies that current PIM systems do not allow for sufficient use of subjective attributes. The article also introduces seven novel system design schemes, suggested by the authors, which demonstrate how the user-subjective principles can be implemented.Personal Information Management (PIM) is an activity in which an individual stores personal information items to retrieve them later. PIM is performed in a physical environment (e.g., an office), with mobile devices (e.g., mobile phones and PDAs), and by using personal computers. The information items used in personal computers include documents, e-mail, Web Favorites, tasks, and contacts. Following Soergel's (1985) model, Barreau (1995) listed five PIM activities: acquisition, organization and storage, maintenance, retrieval, and output. In the personal computer environment, these activities are supported by PIM systems such as the operating system, mailbox, and browser.Despite the fact that PIM is a fundamental aspect of computer-based activity and millions of computer users manage their personal information on a daily basis, there is surprisingly little research on the subject (Whittaker, Terveen, & Nardi, 2000); however, in recent years, the topic has begun to attract increasing scientific attention (Bergman, Boardman, Gwizdka, & Jones, 2004;Teevan, Jones, & Bederson, 2006). Many PIM-related studies report on users' problems with the classification and retrieval of their personal information as well as their dissatisfaction with these processes. Problems are not restricted to a specific PIM system and are reported for digital files (Barreau, 1995;Barreau & Nardi, 1995), e-mail (Whittaker & Sidner, 1996, and Web Favorites (Abrams, Baecker, & Chignell, 1998;Jones, Bruce, & Dumais, 2001). Boardman, Spence, and Sasse (2003), who studied PIM within and across these systems, made the following observation:We were often surprised at the vehemence expressed regarding PIM-related problems...

No abstract