Despite major progress in deciphering the amphibian tree of life by molecular phylogenetics, we identified two questions remaining to be answered regarding relationships within Hyloidea, the clade of South American origin that comprises most extant anuran diversity. A few genera like Rupirana and Crossodactylodes have enigmatic phylogenetic positions, and relationships among major lineages within some families like Leptodactylidae remain ambiguous. To resolve these specific questions we used two approaches (1) a complete matrix approach representing >6.6 kb, including most major Hyloidea lineages (61 terminals) combining different methods of phylogenetic reconstruction and measures of node support; and (2) a supermatrix approach >11.6 kb with a focus on Leptodactylidae. Both Rupirana and Crossodactylodes are unambiguously grouped with Paratelmatobius and Scythrophrys. The clade comprising these four genera is named Crossodactylodinae and embedded within Leptodactylidae. Crossodactylodinae is moderately supported as sister group of Leptodactylinae from (1) and as the sister group of the other Leptodactylidae from (2) with low support. Genera within Crossodactylodinae are scattered along a north-south axis in the Atlantic forest and their origins are very ancient (Paleocene). Such results stress the importance of the northern Atlantic forest in terms of conservation. Moreover, the position of Pseudopaludicola, which is well supported as the sister group to all other Leiuperinae, suggests that foam-nest building may have arisen independently in Leptodactylinae and Leiuperinae. Moreover, in spite of being of similar age, foam-nest builders are more widespread than nonfoam-nest breeders and have higher species diversity. Nevertheless, the bulk of the diversity within foam-nest breeders arose some 20 Myr later than the character itself.

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Aim The persistence and stability of habitats through time are considered predictors of high levels of biodiversity in some environments. Long‐term habitat persistence and stability may explain the species‐rich, endemic forest fauna and flora of the Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity Region (EABR). Using complementary phylogenetic and biogeographical approaches, we examine evolutionary patterns in EABR brevicipitid frogs. Using these data, we test whether brevicipitid history reflects patterns of long‐term forest persistence and/or stability across the EABR. Location East Africa. Methods A dated phylogeny for brevicipitids was constructed using two nuclear and three mitochondrial markers. Alternative diversification models were used to determine signal for constant or varying net diversification rates. Using our dated tree, we identified areas of high phylogenetic diversity (PD), and inferred ancestral areas using likelihood and Bayesian approaches. Results Brevicipitids have a long history, with generic diversification among extant lineages pre‐dating the Oligocene (> 33 Ma). Ancestral‐area reconstructions indicate the presence of brevicipitids in the EABR since the Oligocene, and support a scenario of palaeoendemics surviving in EABR refugia. Ancestral‐area reconstructions indicate that the central Eastern Arc Mountains (EAM) formed the initial centre of diversification of forest brevicipitids. Measures of PD show that diversity varies across the EABR but is highest in the EAM. Constant net diversification rate in brevicipitids is a significantly better fit than alternative, rate‐variable models. Main conclusions The degree of persistence of forest habitats appears to be a contributing factor to the varying levels of diversity across the EABR in brevicipitids (and other organisms). In contrast to the Southern Highlands and Ethiopian Bale Mountains, the EAM stands out as an area that enabled the constant accumulation of brevicipitid species over a long period of time.

The family Rivulidae is the fourth most diverse clade of Neotropical fishes. Together with some genera of the related African family Nothobranchiidae, many rivulids exhibit a characteristic annual life cycle, with diapausing eggs and delayed embryonic development, which allows them to survive in the challenging seasonal ponds that they inhabit. Rivulidae also includes two species known as the only the self-fertilizing vertebrates and some species with internal fertilization. The first goal of this article is to review the systematics of the family considering phylogenetic relationships and synapomorphies of subfamilial clades, thus unifying information that is dispersed throughout the literature. From this revision, it is clear that phylogenetic relationships within Rivulidae are poorly resolved, especially in one of the large clades that compose it, the subfamily Rivulinae, where conflicting hypotheses of relationships of non-annual and annual genera are evident. The second goal of this work is to present an updated phylogenetic hypothesis (based on mitochondrial, nuclear, and morphological information) for one of the most speciose genus of Rivulidae, Austrolebias. Our results confirm the monophyly of the genus and of some subgeneric clades already diagnosed, but propose new relationships among them and their species composition, particularly in the subgenus Acrolebias.

Populations of many frogs have declined alarmingly in recent years, placing nearly one third of the . 6,000 species under threat of extinction. Declines have been attributed largely to habitat loss, environmental degradation and/or infectious diseases such as chytridiomycosis. Many frogs undergo dramatic natural population fluctuations such that long-term data are required to determine population trends without undue influence of stochastic factors. We present long-term quantitative data (individuals encountered per person hour of searching) for four monotypic frog genera endemic to an Afromontane region of exceptional importance but growing conservation concern: one endemic to the Ethiopian highlands (Spinophrynoides osgoodi) and three endemic to the Bale Mountains (Altiphrynoides malcolmi, Balebreviceps hillmani, Ericabatrachus baleensis), collected during 15 field trips to the Bale Mountains between 1971 and 2009. Only a single confirmed sighting of S. osgoodi has been made since 1995. The other three species have also declined, at least locally. E. baleensis appears to have been extirpated at its type locality and at the same site B. hillmani has declined. These declines are in association with substantial habitat degradation caused by a growing human population. Chytrid fungus has been found on several frog species in Bale, although no dead or moribund frogs have been encountered. These results expose an urgent need for more amphibian surveys in the Bale Mountains. Additionally, we argue that detrimental human exploitation must be halted immediately in at least some parts of the Harenna Forest if a conservation crisis is to be averted.

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The Rana palmipes group consists of eight species of frogs distributed from southern Mexico to Peru, Bolivia, and Brasil. The frogs currently recognized as R. maculata and R. palmipes are composites of two and three species, respectively. Frogs previously referred to R. maculata from the Maya Mountains of Belize are described as a new species, R. juliani. The three species previously included under the name R. palmipes comprise the R. palmipes complex: R. palmipes of eastern South America, R. vaillanti of Central America and western South America, and a newly described species, R. bwana, of the Pacific versant of the Huancabamba Depression in southwestern Ecuador and northwestern Peru.

Carotenoids are isoprenoid pigments used in food, chemical, textile, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. They act not only as dyes and provitamins A but also have antioxidants, photoprotective, antimicrobial properties, among others. This class of pigment can be obtained traditionally by plants or chemical synthesis, but they have some disadvantages. In recent years, search for alternative sources has been an important strategy for the carotenoid industries. Microbial synthesis is an alternative that has shown good yields, speed, and reduced production costs. Hostile environments, such as the Caatinga domain, represent an interesting source of microorganisms that produce biomolecules, especially carotenoids, because of oxidative stress caused by sunlight. Thus, this region has been attracting the attention of the scientific community and industry for the use of these organisms in the production of carotenoids and applications in cosmetic products; since these compounds have interesting antioxidant and photoprotective properties. In this review, general characteristics of carotenoids, sources of production, industrial applicability, and commercialization will be discussed, as well as perspectives on the production of carotenoids from microorganisms isolated from the Caatinga and their application in anti-UV products.