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Cell growth and survival depend on a delicate balance between energy production and synthesis of metabolites. Here, we provide evidence that an alternative mitochondrial complex II (CII) assembly, designated as CIIlow, serves as a checkpoint for metabolite biosynthesis under bioenergetic stress, with cells suppressing their energy utilization by modulating DNA synthesis and cell cycle progression. Depletion of CIIlow leads to an imbalance in energy utilization and metabolite synthesis, as evidenced by recovery of the de novo pyrimidine pathway and unlocking cell cycle arrest from the S-phase. In vitro experiments are further corroborated by analysis of paraganglioma tissues from patients with sporadic, SDHA and SDHB mutations. These findings suggest that CIIlow is a core complex inside mitochondria that provides homeostatic control of cellular metabolism depending on the availability of energy.

SUMMARY The extreme anterior domain (EAD) is a conserved embryonic region that includes the presumptive mouth. We show that the Kinin-Kallikrein pathway is active in the EAD and necessary for craniofacial development in Xenopus and zebrafish. The mouth failed to form and neural crest (NC) development and migration was abnormal after loss of function (LOF) in the pathway genes kng, encoding Bradykinin (xBdk), carboxypeptidase-N (cpn) that cleaves Bradykinin and neuronal nitric oxide synthase. Consistent with a role for nitric oxide (NO) in face formation, endogenous NO levels declined after LOF in pathway genes but these were restored and a normal face formed after medial implantation of xBdk-beads into LOF embryos. Facial transplants demonstrated that Cpn function from within the EAD is necessary for migration of first arch cranial NC into the face and to promote mouth opening. The study identifies the EAD as an essential craniofacial organizer acting through Kinin-Kallikrein signaling.

Real-time PCR tomography is a novel, quantitative method for measuring localized RNA expression profiles within single cells. We demonstrate its usefulness by dissecting an oocyte from Xenopus laevis into slices along its animal–vegetal axis, extracting its RNA and measuring the levels of 18 selected mRNAs by real-time RT-PCR. This identified two classes of mRNA, one preferentially located towards the animal, the other towards the vegetal pole. mRNAs within each group show comparable intracellular gradients, suggesting they are produced by similar mechanisms. The polarization is substantial, though not extreme, with around 5% of vegetal gene mRNA molecules detected at the animal pole, and around 50% of the molecules in the far most vegetal section. Most animal pole mRNAs were found in the second section from the animal pole and in the central section, which is where the nucleus is located. mRNA expression profiles did not change following in vitro fertilization and we conclude that the cortical rotation that follows fertilization has no detectable effect on intracellular mRNA gradients.

Cell differentiation depends mainly on specific mRNA expression. To quantify the expression of a particular gene, the normalisation with respect to the expression of a reference gene is carried out. This is based on the assumption that the expression of the reference gene is constant during development, in different cells or tissues or after treatment. Xenopus laevis studies have frequently used eEF-1 alpha, GAPDH, ODC, L8, and H4 as reference genes. The aim of this work was to examine, by real-time RT-PCR, the expression profiles of the above-mentioned five reference genes during early development of X. laevis. It is shown that their expression profiles vary greatly during X. laevis development. The developmental changes of mRNA expression can thus significantly compromise the relative mRNA quantification based on these reference genes, when different developmental stages are to be compared. The normalisation against total RNA is recommended instead. Developmental Dynamics 235:754 -758, 2006.

a-Amylases (a-1,4-glucan-4-glucanohydrolases) are a group of glycoside hydrolases that are widely distributed in bacteria, fungi, plants, and animal tissues [1,2]. They catalyze the hydrolysis of the a-(1,4) glycosidic linkage found in starch components and other related polysaccharides. a-Amylases are among the oldest known enzymes, but detailed information about their structure and inhibition started to become available only in the 1990s, as they became targets for regulation of important physiological processes. A promising field of current research involves suppression of the development of insect pests via impairment of their amylolytic digestion by naturally occurring a-amylase inhibitors. The proteinaceous a-amylase inhibitors are produced in plant tissues, in which they act as defensive proteins directed against exogenous digestive The digestive tract of lepidopteran insects is extremely alkaline. In the present work, molecular adaptation of amylolytic enzymes to this environment was investigated in the flour moth Ephestia kuehniella, an important stored-product pest. Three digestive a-amylases [Ephestia kuehniella a-amylase isoenzymes 1-3 (EkAmy1-3)] with an alkaline pH optimum were purified from larvae and biochemically characterized. These isoenzymes differ significantly in their sensitivity to a-amylase inhibitors of plant origin that are directed against herbivores as antifeedants. Such functional variability renders the amylolytic system less vulnerable to suppression by plant defensive molecules. Moreover, we found that expression of a-amylases is upregulated in larvae feeding on a diet enriched with an a-amylase inhibitor. The a-amylases are secreted into the larval midgut by an exocytotic mechanism, as revealed by immunogold microscopy. The cDNA sequence of EkAmy3 was determined, and a homology model of EkAmy3 was built in order to analyze the structural features responsible for adaptation to alkaline pH. First, the overall fold was found to be stabilized by remodeling of ion pairs. Second, molecular simulations supported by activity measurements showed that EkAmy3 does not bind a Cl -, owing to an Arg-to-Gln mutation in a conserved binding site. The Cl --binding residues are in contact with the catalytic residues, and this change might help to fine-tune the catalytic pK a values to an alkaline pH optimum. We conclude that lepidopteran a-amylases are evolutionarily adapted in terms of structure and expression dynamics for effective functioning in the digestive system. Abbreviations EkAmy1-3, Ephestia kuehniella a-amylase isoenzymes 1-3; HPA, human pancreatic a-amylase; PPA, porcine pancreatic a-amylase; qPCR, quantitative real-time RT-PCR; TMA, Tenebrio molitor a-amylase.

The precision and reliability of quantitative nucleic acid analysis depends on the quality of the sample analyzed and the integrity of the nucleic acids. The integrity of RNA is currently primarily assessed by the analysis of ribosomal RNA, which is the by far dominant species. The extrapolation of these results to mRNAs and microRNAs, which are structurally quite different, is questionable. Here we show that ribosomal and some nucleolar and mitochondrial RNAs, are highly resistant to naturally occurring post-mortem degradation, while mRNAs, although showing substantial internal variability, are generally much more prone to nucleolytic degradation. In contrast, all types of RNA show the same sensitivity to heat. Using qPCR assays targeting different regions of mRNA molecules, we find no support for 5′ or 3′ preferentiality upon post-mortem degradation.