Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal, neurodegenerative condition characterized by loss of motor neurones and progressive muscle wasting. There is no diagnostic test for ALS therefore robust biomarkers would not only be valuable for diagnosis, but also for the classification of disease subtypes, monitoring responses to drugs and tracking disease progression. As regulators of gene expression, microRNAs (miRNAs) are increasingly used for diagnostic and prognostic purposes in various disease states with increasing exploration in neurodegenerative disorders. We hypothesize that circulating blood-based miRNAs will serve as biomarkers and use miRNA profiling to determine miRNA signatures from the serum of sporadic ALS patients compared to healthy controls and patients with diseases that mimic ALS. A number of differentially expressed miRNAs were identified in each set of patient comparisons. Validation in an additional patient cohort showed that miR-206 and miR-143-3p were increased and miR-374b-5p was decreased compared to controls. A continued change in miRNA expression persisted during disease progression indicating the potential use of these particular miRNAs as longitudinal biomarkers in ALS.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a clinical subtype of motor neurone disease (MND), a fatal neurodegenerative disease involving the loss of both the upper and lower motor neurones from the motor cortex, brainstem, and spinal cord. Identifying specific disease biomarkers would help to not only improve diagnostic delay but also to classify disease subtypes, monitor response to therapeutic drugs and track disease progression. miRNAs are small non-coding RNA responsible for regulating gene expression and ultimately protein expression and have been used as biomarkers for many cancers and neurodegenerative disorders. Investigating the detection of miRNAs in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), the fluid that bathes the central nervous system (CNS) is a prime target for identifying potential biomarkers for ALS. This is the first study to investigate the expression of miRNAs in the CSF of ALS patients using small RNA sequencing. We detected 11 differentially expressed miRNAs in the CSF of sporadic ALS (sALS) patients related to neural and glial activity. Additionally, miRNAs involved in glucose metabolism and the regulation of oxidative stress were also identified. Detecting the presence of potential CSF derived miRNA biomarkers in sALS could open up a whole new area of knowledge to help gain a better understanding of disease pathophysiology. Additionally, with further investigation, the tracking of CSF miRNA over the disease course could be used to follow the disease progression and monitor the effect of novel therapeutics that could be personalized to an individual disease phenotype.

Deep subcortical lesions (DSCL) of the brain, are present in ~60% of the ageing population, and are linked to cognitive decline and depression. DSCL are associated with demyelination, blood brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction, and microgliosis. Microglia are the main immune cell of the brain. Under physiological conditions microglia have a ramified morphology, and react to pathology with a change to a more rounded morphology as well as showing protein expression alterations. This study builds on previous characterisations of DSCL and radiologically ‘normal-appearing’ white matter (NAWM) by performing a detailed characterisation of a range of microglial markers in addition to markers of vascular integrity. The Cognitive Function and Ageing Study (CFAS) provided control white matter (WM), NAWM and DSCL human post mortem tissue for immunohistochemistry using microglial markers (Iba-1, CD68 and MHCII), a vascular basement membrane marker (collagen IV) and markers of BBB integrity (fibrinogen and aquaporin 4). The immunoreactive profile of CD68 increased in a stepwise manner from control WM to NAWM to DSCL. This correlated with a shift from small, ramified cells, to larger, more rounded microglia. While there was greater Iba-1 immunoreactivity in NAWM compared to controls, in DSCL, Iba-1 levels were reduced to control levels. A prominent feature of these DSCL was a population of Iba-1-/CD68+ microglia. There were increases in collagen IV, but no change in BBB integrity. Overall the study shows significant differences in the immunoreactive profile of microglial markers. Whether this is a cause or effect of lesion development remains to be elucidated. Identifying microglia subpopulations based on their morphology and molecular markers may ultimately help decipher their function and role in neurodegeneration. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that Iba-1 is not a pan-microglial marker, and that a combination of several microglial markers is required to fully characterise the microglial phenotype.

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Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that results in loss of the upper and lower motor neurons from motor cortex, brainstem, and spinal cord. While the majority of cases are sporadic, approximately 10% show familial inheritance. ALS is usually inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, although autosomal recessive and X-linked inheritance do occur. To date, 24 of the genes at 26 loci have been identified; these include loci linked to ALS and to frontotemporal dementia-ALS, where family pedigrees contain individuals with frontotemporal dementia with/without ALS. The most commonly established genetic causes of familial ALS (FALS) to date are the presence of a hexanucleotide repeat expansion in the C9ORF72 gene (39.3% FALS) and mutation of SOD1, TARDBP, and FUS, with frequencies of 12%–23.5%, 5%, and 4.1%, respectively. However, with the increasing use of next-generation sequencing of small family pedigrees, this has led to an increasing number of genes being associated with ALS. This review provides a comprehensive review on the genetics of ALS and an update of the pathogenic mechanisms associated with these genes. Commonly implicated pathways have been established, including RNA processing, the protein degradation pathways of autophagy and ubiquitin–proteasome system, as well as protein trafficking and cytoskeletal function. Elucidating the role genetics plays in both FALS and sporadic ALS is essential for understanding the subsequent cellular dysregulation that leads to motor neuron loss, in order to develop future effective therapeutic strategies.

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Neuronal dysfunction and synaptic loss are major hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD) which correlate with symptom severity. Impairment of the γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic inhibitory interneurons, which form around 20% of the total neuronal network, may be an early event contributing to neuronal circuit dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases. This study examined the expression of two of the main classes of inhibitory interneurons, parvalbumin (PV) and somatostatin (SST) interneurons in the temporal cortex and hippocampus of AD and control cases, using immunohistochemistry. We report a significant regional variation in the number of PV and SST interneurons with a higher number identified per mm2 in the temporal cortex compared to the hippocampus. Fewer SST interneurons, but not PV interneurons, were identified per mm2 in the temporal cortex of AD cases compared to control subjects. Our results support regional neuroanatomical effects on selective interneuron classes in AD, and suggest that impairment of the interneuronal circuit may contribute to neuronal dysfunction and cognitive decline in AD.

Oxidative stress and oxidative DNA damage are early features of mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease (AD), occurring before the formation of classical AD neuropathology, and resulting from an imbalance between pro- and anti-oxidants. Astrocytes play a major neuroprotective role, producing high levels of anti-oxidants including metallothionein-I and -II (MT-I/II). In the present study we characterized the immunoreactive profile of MT-I/II in the temporal cortex of the Cognitive Function and Ageing Study (CFAS) aging population-representative neuropathology cohort, and examined H O -modulation of MT transcription by human astrocytes. MT-I/II is primarily expressed by astrocytes in the aging brain, but is also associated with pyramidal neurons in a small proportion of cases. Astrocyte expression of MT-I/II does not correlate with Alzheimer-type pathology (Aβ plaques and neurofibrillary tangles) but does relate to astrocyte oxidative DNA damage (r = .312, p = .006) and the astrocyte response to oxidative DNA damage in vivo (r = .238, p = .04), and MT gene expression is significantly induced in human astrocytes response to oxidative stress in vitro (p = .01). In contrast, neuronal MT-I/II does not relate to oxidative DNA damage or the neuronal DNA damage response, but is significantly higher in cases with high levels of local tangle pathology (p = .007). As MT-I/II is neuroprotective against oxidative stress, modulation of MT-I/II expression is a potential therapeutic target to treat the onset and progression of cognitive impairment.