Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a leading cause of infant mortality worldwide. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), a signaling receptor for structurally diverse microbe-associated molecular patterns, is activated by the RSV fusion (F) protein and by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in a CD14-dependent manner. TLR4 signaling by LPS also requires the presence of an additional protein, MD-2. Thus, it is possible that F protein-mediated TLR4 activation relies on MD-2 as well, although this hypothesis has not been formally tested. LPS-free RSV F protein was found to activate NF-κB in HEK293T transfectants that express wild-type (WT) TLR4 and CD14, but only when MD-2 was coexpressed. These findings were confirmed by measuring F-protein-induced interleukin 1β (IL-1β) mRNA in WT versus MD-2−/− macrophages, where MD-2−/− macrophages failed to show IL-1β expression upon F-protein treatment, in contrast to the WT. Both Rhodobacter sphaeroides LPS and synthetic E5564 (eritoran), LPS antagonists that inhibit TLR4 signaling by binding a hydrophobic pocket in MD-2, significantly reduced RSV F-protein-mediated TLR4 activity in HEK293T-TLR4–CD14–MD-2 transfectants in a dose-dependent manner, while TLR4-independent NF-κB activation by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) was unaffected. In vitro coimmunoprecipitation studies confirmed a physical interaction between native RSV F protein and MD-2. Further, we demonstrated that the N-terminal domain of the F1 segment of RSV F protein interacts with MD-2. These data provide new insights into the importance of MD-2 in RSV F-protein-mediated TLR4 activation. Thus, targeting the interaction between MD-2 and RSV F protein may potentially lead to novel therapeutic approaches to help control RSV-induced inflammation and pathology.

eographic atrophy (GA) of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a term used originally by Gass 1 to designate one form of late age-related macular degeneration (AMD). It is the major cause of blind registration in Western communities, 2,3 although, with few exceptions, it is less common than choroidal neovascular disease. [4][5][6] Concepts as to the pathological processes leading to GA are incompletely understood, and the sequence of events leading to visual loss has been debated for some years. On the basis of histological studies, Hogan 7 took the view that photoreceptor cells were lost early in the disease and that cell loss was possibly consequent on RPE dysfunction. Sarks and colleagues 8,9 undertook meticulous morphological studies on donor eyes and supported this view. They observed accumulation of phagosomal debris in the RPE accompanied by enlargement and displacement of the RPE cells. The overlying photoreceptor cells were fewer in number and lost outer segments prior to GA becoming apparent. In addition, it was considered that thickening of the Bruch membrane (BM) undoubtedly played a role on the genesis of disease, 8,9 although the significance of the BM change to photoreceptor-cell loss was not clear. They also concluded that closure of the choriocapillaris followed atrophy of the RPE and outer retina rather than causing it. However, these conclusions were drawn on a small number of donor eyes.Clinical studies of a larger number of eyes using autofluorescence have supported these general conclusions. The observation that GA is preceded by excess autofluorescence IMPORTANCE Geographic atrophy (GA) is the major cause of blind registration in Western communities, although, with few exceptions, it is less common than choroidal neovascular disease. The variation of phenotype implies that age-related macular degeneration (AMD) does not follow the same course from one case to another and that phenotyping may be important before initiating a therapeutic trial.OBJECTIVE To document photoreceptor and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cell loss and other changes at the RPE-choroid interface in donated human eyes in which visual loss was deemed to be due to GA. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTSHistological study of a consecutive series of eyes donated by individuals previously diagnosed clinically as having GA. Donors were chosen on the basis of available clinical records (from MidAmerica Transplant Services, St Louis, Missouri; the Iowa Lions Eye Bank, Iowa City; and the Utah Lions Eye Bank, Salt Lake City) and selected were those considered to have GA due to AMD. Tissues in the regions of atrophy were examined with light, electron, and autofluorescence microscopy. RESULTSIn most of the 37 donors examined, there was marked loss of photoreceptor cells for variable distances distal from the edge of the GA. Rod loss was greater than cone loss. An inverse relationship existed between the quantity of autofluorescent inclusions in the RPE and the thickness of sub-RPE basal laminar deposit. Integrity of the choroid ...

Host response to invasion by many gram-negative bacteria depends upon activation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) by endotoxin presented as a monomer bound to myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD-2). Metabolic labeling of hexaacylated endotoxin (LOS) from Neisseria meningitidis with [(13)C]acetate allowed the use of NMR to examine structural properties of the fatty acyl chains of LOS present in TLR4-agonistic and -antagonistic binary and ternary complexes with, respectively, wild-type or mutant (F126A) MD-2 ± TLR4 ectodomain. Chemical shift perturbation indicates that Phe(126) affects the environment and/or position of each of the bound fatty acyl chains both in the binary LOS·MD-2 complex and in the ternary LOS·MD-2·TLR4 ectodomain complex. In both wild-type and mutant LOS·MD-2 complexes, one of the six fatty acyl chains of LOS is more susceptible to paramagnetic attenuation, suggesting protrusion of that fatty acyl chain from the hydrophobic pocket of MD-2, independent of association with TLR4. These findings indicate that re-orientation of the aromatic side chain of Phe(126) is induced by binding of hexaacylated E, preceding interaction with TLR4. This re-arrangement of Phe(126) may act as a "hydrophobic switch," driving agonist-dependent contacts needed for TLR4 dimerization and activation.

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Background Chronic inflammation mediated by the cyclooxygenase enzymes, specifically their product prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), can result in the development of cancer. PGE2 promotes cell proliferation, apoptosis, and angiogenesis through interaction with its specific receptors (EP1 receptor - EP4 receptor [EP1R-EP4R]). In multiple human cancers, the expression of EP4R is associated with the development of malignancy and a poor prognosis. The expression of EP4R has not yet been evaluated in canine tumors. The aim of this study was to characterize the mRNA gene expression of EP4R (ptger4) in canine squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), apocrine gland anal sac adenocarcinoma (AGASACA), and transitional cell carcinoma (TCC). Archived tumor samples of canine cutaneous SCC (n = 9), AGASACA (n = 9), and TCC (n = 9), and matched archived normal tissue controls were evaluated for mRNA expression of canine EP4R using RNA in situ hybridization (RNAscope®). Quantification of RNAscope® signals in tissue sections was completed with an advanced digital pathology image analysis system (HALO). Data was expressed as copy number, H-index, and percent tumor cell expression of EP4R. Results In all canine SCC, AGASACA, and TCC samples evaluated, strong universal positive expression of EP4R was identified. For SCC and AGASACA, mRNA EP4R expression was statistically higher than that of their respective normal tissues. The TCC tissues displayed significantly less mRNA EP4R expression when compared to normal bladder mucosa. Conclusions These results confirm the mRNA expression of canine EP4R in all tumor types evaluated, with SCC and AGASACA displaying the highest expression, and TCC displaying the lowest expression. This study also represents the first reported veterinary evaluation of EP4R expression using the novel in situ hybridization technique, RNAscope®.