Yeast cells arrest in the G1 phase of the cell cycle upon exposure to mating pheromones. As cells commit to a new cycle, G1 CDK activity (Cln/CDK) inhibits signaling through the mating MAPK cascade. Here we show that the target of this inhibition is Ste5, the MAPK cascade scaffold protein. Cln/CDK disrupts Ste5 membrane localization by phosphorylating a cluster of sites that flank a small, basic, membrane-binding motif in Ste5. Effective inhibition of Ste5 signaling requires multiple phosphorylation sites and a substantial accumulation of negative charge, which suggests that Ste5 acts as a sensor for high G1 CDK activity. Thus, Ste5 is an integration point for both external and internal signals. When Ste5 cannot be phosphorylated, pheromone triggers an aberrant arrest of cells outside G1 either in the presence or absence of the CDK-inhibitor protein Far1. These findings define a mechanism and physiological benefit of restricting antiproliferative signaling to G1.

Activation of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase cascade signaling by yeast mating pheromones involves recruitment of the Ste5 scaffold protein to the plasma membrane by the receptor-activated Gbetagamma dimer. Here, we identify a putative amphipathic alpha-helical domain in Ste5 that binds directly to phospholipid membranes and is required for membrane recruitment by Gbetagamma. Thus, Ste5 signaling requires synergistic Ste5-Gbetagamma and Ste5-membrane interactions, with neither alone being sufficient. Remarkably, the Ste5 membrane binding domain is a dual-function motif that also mediates nuclear import. Separation-of-function mutations show that signaling requires the membrane-targeting activity of this domain, not its nuclear-targeting activity, and heterologous lipid binding domains can substitute for its function. This domain also contains imperfections that reduce membrane affinity, and their elimination results in constitutive signaling, explaining some previous hyperactive Ste5 mutants. Therefore, weak membrane affinity is advantageous, ensuring a normal level of signaling quiescence in the absence of stimulus and imposing a requirement for Gbetagamma binding.

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae kinase Ste20 is a member of the p21-activated kinase (PAK) family with several functions, including pheromone-responsive signal transduction. While PAKs are usually activated by small G proteins and Ste20 binds Cdc42, the role of Cdc42-Ste20 binding has been controversial, largely because Ste20 lacking its entire Cdc42-binding (CRIB) domain retains kinase activity and pheromone response. Here we show that, unlike CRIB deletion, point mutations in the Ste20 CRIB domain that disrupt Cdc42 binding also disrupt pheromone signaling. We also found that Ste20 kinase activity is stimulated by GTP-bound Cdc42 in vivo and this effect is blocked by the CRIB point mutations. Moreover, the Ste20 CRIB and kinase domains bind each other, and mutations that disrupt this interaction cause hyperactive kinase activity and bypass the requirement for Cdc42 binding. These observations demonstrate that the Ste20 CRIB domain is autoinhibitory and that this negative effect is antagonized by Cdc42 to promote Ste20 kinase activity and signaling. Parallel results were observed for filamentation pathway signaling, suggesting that the requirement for Cdc42-Ste20 interaction is not qualitatively different between the mating and filamentation pathways. While necessary for pheromone signaling, the role of the Cdc42-Ste20 interaction does not require regulation by pheromone or the pheromone-activated G␤␥ complex, because the CRIB point mutations also disrupt signaling by activated forms of the kinase cascade scaffold protein Ste5. In total, our observations indicate that Cdc42 converts Ste20 to an active form, while pathway stimuli regulate the ability of this active Ste20 to trigger signaling through a particular pathway.

CDC42 encodes a highly conserved GTPase of the Rho family that is best known for its role in regulating cell polarity and actin organization. In addition, various studies of both yeast and mammalian cells have suggested that Cdc42p, through its interaction with p21-activated kinases (PAKs), plays a role in signaling pathways that regulate target gene transcription. However, recent studies of the yeast pheromone response pathway suggested that prior results with temperature-sensitive cdc42 mutants were misleading and that Cdc42p and the Cdc42p-PAK interaction are not involved in signaling. To clarify this issue, we have identified and characterized novel viable pheromone-resistant cdc42 alleles that retain the ability to perform polarity-related functions. Mutation of the Cdc42p residue Val36 or Tyr40 caused defects in pheromone signaling and in the localization of the Ste20p PAK in vivo and affected binding to the Ste20p Cdc42p-Rac interactive binding (CRIB) domain in vitro. Epistasis analysis suggested that they affect the signaling step at which Ste20p acts, and overproduction of Ste20p rescued the defect. These results suggest that Cdc42p is in fact required for pheromone response and that interaction with the PAK Ste20p is critical for that role. Furthermore, the ste20⌬CRIB allele, previously used to disrupt the Cdc42p-Ste20p interaction, behaved as an activated allele, largely bypassing the signaling defect of the cdc42 mutants. Additional observations lead us to suggest that Cdc42p collaborates with the SH3-domain protein Bem1p to facilitate signal transduction, possibly by providing a cell surface scaffold that aids in the local concentration of signaling kinases, thus promoting activation of a mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade by Ste20p.In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, cells of the a and ␣ mating types secrete pheromones that bind to G-protein-coupled receptors on the surfaces of cells of the opposite mating type, initiating a signaling cascade in which the ␤␥ subunits of the G protein promote the activation of a mitogenactivated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade (4). This process appears to involve the binding of at least two proteins, the upstream kinase Ste20p and the scaffold protein Ste5p, to the liberated G␤␥ subunits (11,25,40,51). MAPK activation then promotes cell cycle arrest in G 1 and stimulates the expression of several genes, including FUS1, leading ultimately to fusion of the mating partners (22).The small GTPase Cdc42p and its guanine nucleotide exchange factor Cdc24p are essential for polarity establishment and subsequent bud formation (1, 38). In addition to their roles in cell polarity, these proteins have been proposed to play roles in signal transduction in response to mating pheromones (46,47,53). Temperature-sensitive cdc42 and cdc24 mutants have defects in ␣-factor-stimulated transcription of FUS1 and in maintaining G 1 arrest at the restrictive temperature (46, 53). In addition, an interaction was detected by two-hybrid analysis between G␤ and Cdc24p (53), and Cd...

The signaling properties of these kinase fusions support a model in which scaffold proteins dictate substrate choice and promote pathway specificity by presenting preferred substrates in high local concentration. Furthermore, insulation is inherent to scaffold-mediated signaling and does not require that signaling be initiated by pathway-specific stimuli or activator proteins. Our results give insight into the mechanisms and physiological importance of pathway insulation and provide a foundation for the design of customized signaling proteins.

Distinct MAP kinase pathways in yeast share several signaling components , including the PAK Ste20 and the MAPKKK Ste11, yet signaling is specific. Mating pheromones trigger an initial step in which Ste20 activates Ste11 , and this requires plasma membrane recruitment of the MAP kinase cascade scaffold protein, Ste5 . Here, we demonstrate an additional role for Ste5 membrane localization. Once Ste11 is activated, signaling through the mating pathway remains minimal but is substantially amplified when Ste5 is recruited to the membrane either by the Gbetagamma dimer or by direct membrane targeting, even to internal membranes. Ste11 signaling is also amplified by Ste5 oligomerization and by a hyperactivating mutation in the Ste7 binding region of Ste5. We suggest a model in which membrane recruitment of Ste5 concentrates its binding partners and thereby amplifies signaling through the kinase cascade. We find similar behavior in the osmotically responsive HOG pathway. Remarkably, while both pheromone and hyperosmotic stimuli amplify signaling from constitutively active Ste11, the resulting signaling output remains pathway specific. These findings suggest a common mode of regulation in which pathway stimuli both initiate and amplify MAP kinase cascade signaling. The regulation of rate-limiting steps that lie after a branchpoint from shared components helps ensure signaling specificity.

The MAP kinase cascade is a ubiquitous eukaryotic signaling module that can be controlled by a diverse group of scaffold proteins. In budding yeast, activation of the mating MAP kinase cascade involves regulated membrane recruitment of the archetypal scaffold protein Ste5. This event promotes activation of the first kinase, but it also enhances subsequent signal propagation through the remainder of the cascade. By studying this latter effect, we find that membrane recruitment promotes signaling in trans between kinases on separate Ste5 molecules. First, trans signaling requires all Ste5 domains that mediate membrane recruitment, including both protein-binding and membrane-binding domains. Second, artificial membrane tethering of Ste5 can drive trans signaling, bypassing the need for native localization domains.Third, trans signaling can occur even if the first kinase does not bind the scaffold but instead is localized independently to the plasma membrane. Moreover, the trans signaling reaction allowed us to separate Ste5 into distinct functional domains, and then achieve normal regulation of signal output by tethering one domain to the membrane and stimulating membrane recruitment of the other. Overall, the results support a heterogeneous "ensemble" model of signaling in which scaffolds need not organize multiprotein complexes but instead can serve as binding sinks that co-concentrate enzymes and substrates at specific subcellular locales. These properties relax assembly constraints for scaffold proteins, increase regulatory flexibility, and can facilitate both natural evolution and artificial design of new signaling proteins and pathways.