Motivation is widely-researched, in both sport psychology and other fields. As rigorous measurement is essential to understanding this latent construct, a critical appraisal of measurement instruments is needed. Thus, the purpose of this review was to evaluate the six most highly cited motivation measures in sport. Peer-reviewed articles published prior to August 2016 were searched to identify the six most highly cited motivation questionnaires in sport: Sport Motivation Scale (SMS), Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI), Situational Motivational Scale (SIMS), Perceptions of Success Questionnaire (POSQ), Behavioural Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ), and Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ). The questionnaires were then evaluated and discussed in four sections: Development, Reliability, Correlates, and Summary. Bibliometric data were also calculated (average weighted impact factor) and assessed (e.g., citations per year) to evaluate the impact of the use of each questionnaire. Despite some variance in their psychometric properties, conceptualization, structure, and utility, the six questionnaires are psychometrically strong instruments for quantifying motivation that are widely supported in the literature. Bibliometric analyses suggested that the IMI ranks first and the SMS ranks sixth according to the average weighted impact factors of their original publications. Consideration of each questionnaire's psychometric strengths/limitations, and conceptualization of motivation in the context of specific research questions should guide researchers in selecting the most appropriate instrument to measure motivation in sport. The average weighted impact factor of each questionnaire is a useful value to consider as well. With these points in mind, recommendations are provided.
a b s t r a c tObjectives: The purpose of this review was to synthesise contemporary research on competitive sport motivation (1995e2016) with a view to identifying trends and gaps in sample characteristics, research designs and analytical strategies, and classifying associated topics. Design: Narrative review. Method: Four databases were searched using a focused search strategy, leading to 63 studies that met the inclusion criteria. These were then evaluated in five sections: Theoretical Frameworks, Sample Characteristics, Research Designs, Analytical Strategies and Topics. Results: A total of 63 studies comprising 12,440 participants were appraised. The average sample size and participant age were 197 and 22.6 years, respectively. Just over half of the studies described their sample as high-level. The majority of studies were quantitative and employed a cross-sectional design. A range of innovative statistical analyses were used, with structural equation modelling being increasingly adopted. In addition to studies focusing on motivation as a stand-alone topic, researchers in the area also investigated its relationship with motivational climate, burnout, doping, perfectionism, injury, and several other related variables. Conclusions: After reviewing the body of research on this specific topic area, promising directions for future research are presented. The focused approach particularly seeks to encourage researchers to employ different methodologies, and prioritise underused topics in future research on competitive athlete groups. Furthermore, the review points to several practical implications for competitive sport stakeholders.
Here we test whether genome size is a predictor of pollen size. If it were, inferences of ancient genome size would be possible using the abundant paleo-palynolgical record. We performed regression analyses across 464 species of pollen width and genome size. We found a significant positive trend. However, regression analysis using phylogentically independent contrasts did not support the correlated evolution of these traits. Instead, a large split between angiosperms and gymnosperms for both pollen width and genome size was revealed. Sister taxa were not more likely to show a positive contrast when compared to deeper nodes. However, significantly more congeneric species had a positive trend than expected by chance. These results may reflect the strong selection pressure for pollen to be small. Also, because pollen grains are not metabolically active when measured, their biology is different than other cells which have been shown to be strongly related to genome size, such as guard cells. Our findings contrast with previously published research. It was our hope that pollen size could be used as a proxy for inferring the genome size of ancient species. However, our results suggest pollen is not a good candidate for such endeavors.
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