There is currently no published empirical evidence‐base demonstrating 3D printing to be an accurate and reliable tool in forensic anthropology, despite 3D printed replicas being exhibited as demonstrative evidence in court. In this study, human bones (n = 3) scanned using computed tomography were reconstructed as virtual 3D models (n = 6), and 3D printed using six commercially available printers, with osteometric data recorded at each stage. Virtual models and 3D prints were on average accurate to the source bones, with mean differences from −0.4 to 1.2 mm (−0.4% to 12.0%). Interobserver differences ranged from −5.1 to 0.7 mm (−5.3% to 0.7%). Reconstruction and modeling parameters influenced accuracy, and prints produced using selective laser sintering (SLS) were most consistently accurate. This preliminary investigation into virtual modeling and 3D printer capability provides a novel insight into the accuracy of 3D printing osteological samples and begins to establish an evidence‐base for validating 3D printed bones as demonstrative evidence.

The Journal of Forensic Radiology and Imaging was launched in 2013 with the aim to collate the literature and demonstrate high-quality case studies on image-based modalities across the forensic sciences. Largely, the focus of this journal has been on the transmissive aspect of forensic imaging, and therefore a significant number of high-quality case studies have been published focusing on computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. As a result, the 'and imaging' aspect is often neglected. Since 2013, technology has fundamentally evolved, and a number of new techniques have become accessible or have been demonstrated as particularly useful within many sub-disciplines of forensic science. These include active and passive surface scanning techniques, and the availability of three-dimensional printing. Therefore, this article discusses non-contact techniques, their applications, advantages, and considerations on the current state of play of imaging in forensic science. HIGHLIGHTS • We discuss the application of 3D imaging within the context of forensic science. • We highlight the available documentation techniques assessing their advantages and disadvantages. • This article provides several recommendations for future best practice. 1. 'and imaging' aspect is often neglected, despite there being substantial overlap between reflective and transmissive techniques. Numerous forensic science sub-disciplines have utilised these imaging techniques often in an inter-disciplinary manner. These include, but are not limited to, anthropology, archaeology, odontology, crime scene investigation, footwear mark recovery and analysis, courtroom visualisation, and ballistic comparison. Given that these rapidly evolving techniques are situated within the changing face of forensic science, this article has collated the current developments

3D printed replicas of human remains are useful tools in courtroom demonstrations. Presently, little published research has investigated the surface quality of printed replicas for use in the presentation of forensic anthropology evidence. In this study, 3D printed replicas of nine human bones were reconstructed from computed tomography (CT) scan data using selective laser sintering (SLS). A three-phased approach assessed: i) the metric accuracy of the 3D prints; ii) the viability of applying age and sex estimation methods (with multiple observers (n=8); and, iii) the surface quality using a customised scoring method (with multiple observers (n=8)). The results confirmed that the prints in this study were accurate to within 2.0 mm of the original dry bone. Observers were able to confidently assess the gross features of the prints; however fine surface details were not always well represented compared to the dry bones.These findings confirm the applicability of 3D printed replicas for courtroom exhibition of gross features but offer caution against their use when fine detailing is important for evaluative interpretation.

There has been a rapid development and utilization of three‐dimensional (3D) printing technologies in engineering, health care, and dentistry. Like many technologies in overlapping disciplines, these techniques have proved to be useful and hence incorporated into the forensic sciences. Therefore, this paper describes how the potential of using 3D printing is being recognized within the various sub‐disciplines of forensic science and suggests areas for future applications. For instance, the application can create a permanent record of an object or scene that can be used as demonstrative evidence, preserving the integrity of the actual object or scene. Likewise, 3D printing can help with the visualization of evidential spatial relationships within a scene and increase the understanding of complex terminology within a courtroom. However, while the application of 3D printing to forensic science is beneficial, currently there is limited research demonstrated in the literature and a lack of reporting skewing the visibility of the applications. Therefore, this article highlights the need to create good practice for 3D printing across the forensic science process, the need to develop accurate and admissible 3D printed models while exploring the techniques, accuracy and bias within the courtroom, and calls for the alignment of future research and agendas perhaps in the form of a specialist working group.

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Objectives: Modern computed tomography (CT) databases offer a valuable resource for obtaining skeletal reconstructions and contemporary population data. However, researchers may not utilise CT data due to limited funds for proprietary modelling software, or from a lack of awareness of visualization techniques. This paper presents a step-by-step method for creating accurate 3D crania models from CT data using the free and open-source platform 3D Slicer. This method is tested to 1) establish if novice users can produce 3D crania models following the steps, and 2) determine if these models are accurate to models from experienced users.Materials and Methods: The step-by-step method was recorded and tested by five observers who each produced twenty 3D models using clinical sinus CT scans (n=20). The models (n=100) were evaluated through a quantitative mesh comparison to establish the accuracy with experienced users and against novice users.Results: The mesh comparison between the models from the experienced observers resulted in an average absolute mean distance of 0.4 mm, with 99% of models accurate to within 0.5 mm. The novice observers were able create robust 3D models following the stepby-step method with average absolute mean distances of 0.5 to 0.6 mm, and 95% of the mean distances within 1 mm of the reference model. Conclusion:All of the crania models produced were comparably accurate with minor variances seen in the background noise and orbital bone modelling. The tested method is accessible and suitable for use with modern CT databases and for forensic reconstruction approaches.

BackgroundCrown-heel length (CHL) measurement is influenced by technique, training, experience and subject cooperation. We investigated whether extending one or both of an infant’s legs affects the precision of CHL taken using an infantometer. The influence of staff training and infant cooperation were also examined.MethodsCHL was measured in children (aged 2), infants (aged 1) and newborns, by extending one or both legs. The subject’s level of cooperation was recorded. Mean differences were compared using Student’s t-test; intra- and inter-observer variability were assessed using Bland-Altman plots with 95 % limits of agreement. Intra- and inter-observer technical errors of measurement (TEMs) were also calculated.ResultsMeasuring CHL in newborns using only one leg resulted in significantly longer measurements. Across all groups, there was less inter-observer variability using both legs; 95 % limits of agreement were lower and TEMs smaller. Larger measurement differences were seen if children were uncooperative.ConclusionsThis study supports measuring CHL with both legs extended. The two-leg technique reduces variability and increases precision by allowing the measurer to control better the position and movements of the infant’s body.