Using a GNSS RTK (Global Navigation Satellite System Real Time Kinematic) -equipped unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) could greatly simplify the construction of highly accurate digital models through SfM (Structure from Motion) photogrammetry, possibly even avoiding the need for ground control points (GCPs). As previous studies on this topic were mostly performed using fixed-wing UAVs, this study aimed to investigate the results achievable by a quadrocopter (DJI Phantom 4 RTK). Three image acquisition flights were performed for two sites of a different character (urban and rural) along with three calculation variants for each flight: georeferencing using ground-surveyed GCPs only, onboard GNSS RTK only, and a combination thereof. The combined and GNSS RTK methods provided the best results (at the expected level of accuracy of 1–2 GSD (Ground Sample Distance)) for both the vertical and horizontal components. The horizontal positioning was also accurate when georeferencing directly based on the onboard GNSS RTK; the vertical component, however, can be (especially where the terrain is difficult for SfM evaluation) burdened with relatively high systematic errors. This problem was caused by the incorrect identification of the interior orientation parameters calculated, as is customary for non-metric cameras, together with bundle adjustment. This problem could be resolved by using a small number of GCPs (at least one) or quality camera pre-calibration.

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Georeferencing using ground control points (GCPs) is the most common strategy in photogrammetry modeling using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-acquired imagery. With the increased availability of UAVs with onboard global navigation satellite system–real-time kinematic (GNSS RTK), georeferencing without GCPs is becoming a promising alternative. However, systematic elevation error remains a problem with this technique. We aimed to analyze the reasons for this systematic error and propose strategies for its elimination. Multiple flights differing in the flight altitude and image acquisition axis were performed at two real-world sites. A flight height of 100 m with a vertical (nadiral) image acquisition axis was considered primary, supplemented with flight altitudes of 75 m and 125 m with a vertical image acquisition axis and two flights at 100 m with oblique image acquisition axes (30° and 15°). Each of these flights was performed twice to produce a full double grid. Models were reconstructed from individual flights and their combinations. The elevation error from individual flights or even combinations yielded systematic elevation errors of up to several decimeters. This error was linearly dependent on the deviation of the focal length from the reference value. A combination of two flights at the same altitude (with nadiral and oblique image acquisition) was capable of reducing the systematic elevation error to less than 0.03 m. This study is the first to demonstrate the linear dependence between the systematic elevation error of the models based only on the onboard GNSS RTK data and the deviation in the determined internal orientation parameters (focal length). In addition, we have shown that a combination of two flights with different image acquisition axes can eliminate this systematic error even in real-world conditions and that georeferencing without GCPs is, therefore, a feasible alternative to the use of GCPs.

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