In 2007, REDD+ emerged as the leading option for early climate change mitigation. In 2010, after the failure of negotiations at the Copenhagen COP, observers cited REDD+ projects and other subnational initiatives as examples of the polycentric governance (based on multiple independent actors operating at multiple levels) necessary to move climate change mitigation forward in the absence of a binding international agreement. This paper examines the ways subnational initiatives can and cannot play this role, based on the experiences and opinions of 23 REDD+ proponent organizations in six countries. These proponents have tested various approaches to climate change mitigation, demonstrating the value of a polycentric approach for promoting innovation and learning. However, from our sample, six initiatives have closed, four no longer label themselves as REDD+, only four are selling carbon credits, and less than half view conditional incentives (initially the core innovation of REDD+) as their most important intervention. While polycentric governance in REDD+ has benefits, it will not enable implementation of REDD+ as originally conceived unless accompanied by a binding international agreement.En 2007, la REDD+ est apparue comme la solution prépondérante en matière d'atténuation précoce du changement climatique. En 2010, après l'échec des négociations à la COP de Copenhague, les observateurs ont mis en avant les projets et les autres initiatives infranationales de REDD+ en tant qu'exemples de la gouvernance polycentrique (reposant sur plusieurs acteurs indépendants intervenant à des niveaux différents) nécessaire pour faire avancer l'atténuation du changement climatique en l'absence d'accord international contraignant. Le présent article examine les cas dans lesquels les initiatives infranationales peuvent effectivement jouer ce rôle et ceux dans lesquels elles ne le peuvent pas, à partir de l'analyse d'expériences et d'opinions collectées auprès de 23 organisations promotrices d'initiatives REDD+ dans six pays. L'étude des diverses approches de l'atténuation du changement climatique testées par ces promoteurs de la REDD+ met en évidence l'intérêt d'une approche polycentrique de la promotion de l'innovation et de l'apprentissage. Cependant, parmi les initiatives de l'échantillon étudié, six n'existent plus, quatre ne se considèrent plus comme relevant du mécanisme REDD+, quatre seulement commercialisent des crédits carbone, et moins de la moitié considèrent les incitations conditionnelles (l'innovation centrale de la REDD+ au départ) comme leur intervention la plus importante. Si la gouvernance polycentrique de la REDD+ comporte des avantages, elle ne permettra pas de mettre en oeuvre le mécanisme comme il avait été conçu à l'origine si elle n'est pas accompagnée d'un accord international contraignant.
Four browse legume foliages (leaves and pod fruits) from three species of Acacia (A. polyacantha, A. tortilis, A. nilotica) and Dichrostachys sp. native to Tanzania were evaluated for nutritive potential to establish levels and effect of normal phenolics and tannins antinutritive factors (ANFs) on in vitro feed digestibility (IVD). Total extractable phenolics (TP), tannins (TT) were estimated by Folin-Ciocalteu assay, and condensed tannins (CT) by butanol/HCl assay. In leaves, total proanthocyanidins were assayed into constituent anthocyanidins' flavonoids by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Organic matter degradability (OMD) was estimated in vitro by gas production technique. Adverse effects of tannin's ANF on IVD were assessed by polyethylene glycol (PEG) tannin bioassay. Crude protein (CP) varied (P<0.05) between fodder species and foliages. Leaves had (P<0.05) higher CP (141-194 g/kg DM) in Dichrostachys sp. and A polyacantha, respectively, compared to pods (133-142 g/kg DM) in A. tortilis and Dichrostachys sp., respectively. Neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) va- . polyacantha), and 0.009 (A. nilotica) to 4.392 (Dichrostachys sp.) for delphinidins, cyanidins and pelargonidin, respectively. The browse foliages had relatively high tannin content greater than 5% DM, a beneficial level in animal feeding and nutrition, and thus could impair feed digestibility. OMD varied significantly (P<0.05) both between fodder species and foliage components. Pods had higher (P<0.05) gas production (GP) and OMD than leaves. Addition of PEG improved (P<0.05) gas production, IVD and metabolizable energy (ME) in leaves and pods by binding tannins. Leaves had higher response on gas production and IVD due to PEG treatment compared to pods except A. nilotica. Improved gas production and digestibility due to PEG treatment indicate nutritive potential in browse fodder previously depressed by tannin ANFs.Therefore, phenolics and tannins ANFs could limit utilization of browse fodder nutritive potential as supplements to ruminants consuming low quality roughages. Utilization of browse legume fodder could be optimized through reduction of tannin antinutritive activity. Under farmers' conditions, optimal utilization of browse could be achieved through feeding a mixture of tanniferous browse with other feeds especially high in nitrogen to dilute tannin antinutritive activity.
This study considered the feasibility of supplementing crested wheatgrass (Agropyron criWtum Fisch.) forage with some common rangeland shrubs. The necessary proportions of shrub and grass in the diet to meet protein and energy requirements were calculated for gestating sheep during the late fall and early winter grazing season. Shrubs studied included fourwing saltbush Atriplex canescens Pursh. Nutt.), winterfat (Ceratoides lanata (Pursh Howell), rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothmnus nauseosus ssp. albi-cat& (Nutt) Rydb.), and big sagebrush (Artemih tridentata ssp. waseyana Nutt.). The shrubs were consistently higher in both total and digestible protein than crested wheatgrass over the period of study. Fourwing saltbush and wintertkt with 8.24 and 6.31% digestible protein, respectively, were found to be the most promising shrubs to be used to supplement the low protein content of crested wheatgrass for late fall grazing. To meet dietary requirements for gestating sheep would require a minimum of 56 to 69% of fourwing saltbush and winterfat respectively, in the diet. Sagebrush and rabbitbrush were lower in digestlble protein content, 4.04 and 4.43% respectively, and therefore could not be used alone with crested wheatgrass.
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