We studied the inflammatory reaction related to cardiopulmonary bypass in 24 neonates (median age 6 days) undergoing the arterial switch operation for simple transposition of the great arteries, with respect to the development of postoperative capillary leak syndrome. Complement proteins, leukocyte count, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and histamine levels were determined before, during, and after cardiopulmonary bypass. Additionally, protein movement from the intravascular into the extravascular space during cardiopulmonary bypass was assessed by the measurement of plasma concentrations of proteins with molecular weights ranging from 21,200 to 718,000. Capillary leak syndrome developed in 13 of the 24 neonates. Patients with capillary leak syndrome, as compared with those without, had preoperatively higher C5a levels (C5a, 3.0 +/- 0.6 microgram/L vs 0.9 +/- 0.2 microgram/L) (mean +/- standard error of the mean) (p < 0.05) and higher leukocyte counts (leukocytes, 17.9 +/- 2.1 X 10(3) cells/ml versus 11.7 +/- 0.8 X 10(3) cells/ml) (p < 0.05), suggesting in these neonates a preoperative inflammatory state. Preoperative clinical and operative data were identical in both patient groups. Before cardiopulmonary bypass, serum protein concentrations were similar in all patients. Ten minutes after institution of cardiopulmonary bypass, protein concentrations fell to significantly lower values in patients with capillary leak syndrome than in those without: albumin (19% +/- 1.5% vs 30% +/- 6% of the prebypass value, p < 0.05), immunoglobulin G (17% +/- 1.5% vs 29% +/- 5.5%, p < 0.001), and alpha 2-macroglobulin (15% +/- 1.2% vs 25% +/- 4%, p < 0.02). During cardiopulmonary bypass, albumin concentrations remained significantly lower in patients with capillary leak syndrome than in those without, whereas hematocrit values were similar in both groups. During cardiopulmonary bypass, patients with capillary leak syndrome also had lower concentrations of complement proteins C3 and C4 but not C1 inhibitor. C3d/C3 ratio and C5a levels were similar in both patient groups. In contrast, histamine liberation during cardiopulmonary bypass was significantly more pronounced in patients with capillary leak syndrome than in those without (725.2 +/- 396.7 pg/ml vs -54.1 +/- 58.4 pg/ml, p < 0.05). Tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels after protamine administration were also significantly higher in patients with capillary leak syndrome (38.1 +/- 10.0 pg/ml vs 15.3 +/- 3.4 pg/ml, p < 0.05). Leukocyte count during and after cardiopulmonary bypass was similar in both patient groups. This study demonstrates increased protein leakage as early as 10 minutes after initiation of.

BackgroundA comprehensive evaluation of postoperative arrhythmias following surgery for congenital heart disease by continuous Holter monitoring has not been carried out. We aimed, firstly, to establish the time course of pre- and early postoperative arrhythmias by beat-to-beat analysis following cardiopulmonary bypass and, secondly, to examine which surgical procedures present risk factors for specific arrhythmias.Methods494 consecutive patients, including 96 neonates, were studied with serial 24-hour Holter electrocardiograms before as well as uninterruptedly during the first 72 hours after surgery and prior to discharge.ResultsWithin 24 hours of surgery 59% of the neonates and 79% of the older children developed arrhythmias. Junctional ectopic tachycardia occurred in 9% of neonates and 5% of non-neonates and ventricular tachycardia in 3% and 15%, respectively.For neonates, male sex and longer cross-clamping time independently increased the risk for arrhythmias (odds ratios 2.83 and 1.96/minute, respectively). Ventricular septal defect repair was a strong risk factor for junctional ectopic tachycardia in neonates and in older children (odds ratios 18.8 and 3.69, respectively). For infants and children, older age (odds ratio 1.01/month) and closure of atrial septal defects (odds ratio 2.68) predisposed to arrhythmias of any type.ConclusionsWe present the largest cohort of neonates, infants and children that has been prospectively studied for the occurrence of arrhythmias after cardiac surgery. Postoperative arrhythmias are a frequent and transient phenomenon after cardiopulmonary bypass, provoked both by mechanical irritation of the conduction system and by humoral factors.

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Aim-To evaluate whether transcatheter closure with the Amplatzer duct occluder oVers an alternative to surgical treatment in infants with a persistent ductus arteriosus. Methods-12 patients under 1 year of age (age 1-11 months, body weight 2.6-8.7 kg) with clinical and echocardiographic findings of a significant duct were considered for transcatheter closure with the Amplatzer occluder. The device is made of a Nitinol and polyester fabric mesh and provides occlusion by stenting the duct. Measured angiographically, the narrowest diameter of the ducts ranged from 1.5-5 mm; in six patients pulmonary hypertension was also present. Results-The devices were implanted and complete duct occlusion was demonstrated during follow up in 10 patients. Procedure related diYculties occurred in nine of the 12 cases and led to relatively long procedure and fluoroscopy times (procedure time 50-180 minutes, median 80 minutes; fluoroscopy time 4.9-49 minutes, median 16 minutes). In two infants transcatheter closure could not be achieved and surgical duct ligation had to be carried out. Conclusions-In small infants with a persistent ductus arteriosus the Amplatzer duct occluder oVers an alternative to surgical treatment, but further improvement of the implantation system is necessary before the procedure can be recommended as the treatment of choice. (Heart 2001;86:444-447)

With an optimal work-up of cardiovascular implants, ingrowth and endothelialisation as well as inflammatory reactions in the surrounding tissue can be assessed. This information allows evaluation of individual tissue reactions to the implant and may serve as valuable basis for optimisation of biocompatibility by implant modification.