This paper introduces a generic framework for multi-risk modelling developed in the project 'Regional RiskScape' by the Research Organizations GNS Science and the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd. (NIWA) in New Zealand. Our goal was to develop a generic technology for modelling risks from different natural hazards and for various elements at risk. The technical framework is not dependent on the specific nature of the individual hazard nor the vulnerability and the type of the individual assets. Based on this generic framework, a software prototype has been developed, which is capable of 'plugging in' various natural hazards and assets without reconfiguring or adapting the generic software framework. To achieve that, we developed a set of standards for treating the fundamental components of a risk model: hazards, assets (elements at risk) and vulnerability models (or fragility functions). Thus, the developed prototype system is able to accommodate any hazard, asset or fragility model, which is provided to the system according to that standard. The software prototype was tested by modelling earthquake, volcanic ashfall, flood, wind, and tsunami risks for several urban centres and small communities in New Zealand.
The distribution of amplitude and phase for eight ocean tidal constituents (M 2 , S 2 , N 2 , K 2 , K 1 , O 1 , P 1 , Q 1 ) is presented as tidal maps for the New Zealand area. The distribution was calculated using a barotropic tidal model driven by TOPEX/ Poseidon data on the outer ocean boundaries. The maps exhibit the known features of the tides in this area such as a complete rotation of the semi-diurnal tides around New Zealand and the reduced springneap variations on the east coast. They also point out several new features for which there are few or no observations, such as diurnal trapped waves and shelf waves. A comparison of the model results with observations shows that sea level errors are within 0.1 m in amplitude and 10° in phase for the largest constituents at all locations, including sites where the data are of low quality and where the geometry is not adequately resolved. For locations where the geometry is adequately represented and the observations are of high quality, sea level errors are within 0.02 m in amplitude and 7° in phase. These results represent the most accurate and highest resolution calculations of tides and currents yet attained for this area.
PrefaceThis book has grown out of a series of lectures on the behaviour of outfalls that the senior author has given as part of the coastal engineering course at the University of Canterbury and a course on outfall design given at Cornell University while on leave in 1990. Since the classic book on outfalls by R. Grace (1978) and an outfall handbook by Williams (1985) there has been a great outpouring of papers on the fluid mechanics of outfall design. This book concentrates on the means of calculating mixing at an outfall and the quality of water near the shoreline and presents the authors' views of the state of the art and the research needs in this area in 1992. Research in this area is continuing and the recent development of sophisticated instrumentation promises to lead to an increase in our understanding of the sewage plume dilution. An example of one of the latest techniques, shown in the frontispiece, is laser-induced fluorescence.The first chapter deals with the controversy over the ocean disposal of waste water. It is pointed out that the oceans have for all time been the ultimate sink for waste from pastures and rivers and provided that there is appropriate treatment and good trade waste collection facilities exist ocean disposal of waste is a viable option.The next two chapters deal very briefly with the desired standard for water quality in the ocean and treatment options for the raw sewage before the ocean disposal.With outfalls the initial dilution comes from the entrainment as the effluent rises to the surface and subsequent dilution and the decay of the pollution comes from the natural processes in the ocean. Chapters four to fourteen deal with initial dilution and chapters fifteen to seventeen deal with the ocean processes.Chapters four and five outline the theory of the rising axisymmetric and merging plumes in a stationary environment. Although Chapter six presents the theory for a standard diffuser much more work still needs to be done in this area and it is suggested that chapter four presents an appropriate design theory. Chapter seven deals with interaction of the rising plume with the surface and the creation of the surface density field while chapter eight describes the rising plume in a stratified fluid. The methods used in the design of a diffuser in still water are presented in chapters nine and ten.Chapters eleven to thirteen deal with a single plume in a current. Chapter eleven investigates a single port in a flow. It is pointed out that the flow is not simple but the velocity distribution goes from the Gaussian, typical of the plume where there is no current to a vortex distribution. The standard diffuser with horizontal ports sometimes gets attached to the bottom of the sea bed and the next chapter deals with the phenomena. The standard diffuser also consists of a number of ports and in a flow the plumes from these will merge. This makes a difference to the trajectory and the dilution of the effluent. This is discussed in chapter thirteen and there is a lot of work to be done ...
Greater Cook Strait (GCS) lies between the North and the South Islands of New Zealand. Its location at the convergence of the Pacific and IndoAustralian tectonic plates leads to interesting bathymetry with an adjacent shallow shelf and deep ocean trench as well as numerous crossing faults and complex shoreline geometry. Our purpose in this study is to examine tides and currents in GCS and, in particular, identify the major forcing mechanisms for the residual currents. Toward this end, we use an unstructured-grid numerical model to reproduce the tides and currents, verify these results with observations and then use the model to separate the various forcing mechanisms.
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