Subclinical necrotic enteritis (
NE
) was induced in broiler chicks using a high dose of
Eimeria
spp. vaccine in the drinking water on day 9, and
Clostridium perfringens
(
Cp
) culture mixed in the feed on days 14 and 15. The aim was to evaluate the effects of probiotic
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens
strain H57 (
H57
) in preventing NE in chicks. Day-old Ross 308, male broilers were weighed and randomly assigned to 6 treatment groups (6 replicate cages/treatment and 8 birds/cage). Birds in group 1 (control) were fed the basal wheat-soybean diet without H57 or NE infection; in group 2 (
Eimeria
) were treated with
Eimeria
alone; in group 3 (
Cp
) were treated with
Cp
alone; in group 4 (NE) received both
Eimeria
and
Cp
; in group 5 (NE-H57) received NE infection and H57; and group 6 (H57) received H57. The basal diet of chicks in groups 5 and 6 was supplemented with H57 at a density of 2 × 10
8
spores/g feed from 1 D of age. On day 21, there were no significant treatment effects on BW and feed intake between control and H57 birds. However, on day 21, the feed conversion ratio of NE-H57 birds was significantly improved when compared with NE birds (1.28 vs. 1.36;
P
< 0.001). Birds challenged with NE had a higher occurrence of pasty vent than birds infected with either
Eimeria
,
Cp
, or NE-H57 (41 vs. 27 vs. 29 vs. 19%, respectively;
P
< 0.001). Intestinal lesion scores of NE birds were also higher than those of
Eimeria
,
Cp
, and NE-H57 birds (5.67 vs. 2.56 vs. 2.78 vs. 2.10, respectively;
P
< 0.001) and correlated with pasty vent (Pearson's r = 0.56;
P
< 0.001). Microscopic evaluation showed mucosal damage and necrosis in NE birds. In contrast, villi from NE-H57 birds were normal, with no damage or infiltration with
Eimeria
or
Cp
. H57 appears to be effective in challenged birds, as it maintained epithelial barrier integrity and improved feed efficiency.
Epithelial damage and loss of barrier integrity occur following intestinal infections in humans and animals. Gut health was evaluated by electron microscopy in an avian model that exposed birds to subclinical necrotic enteritis (NE) and fed them a diet supplemented with the probiotic Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain H57 (H57). Scanning electron microscopy of ileal mucosa revealed significant villus damage, including focal erosions of epithelial cells and villous atrophy, while transmission electron microscopy demonstrated severe enterocyte damage and loss of cellular integrity in NE-exposed birds. In particular, mitochondria were morphologically altered, appearing irregular in shape or swollen, and containing electron-lucent regions of matrix and damaged cristae. Apical junctional complexes between adjacent enterocytes were significantly shorter, and the adherens junction was saccular, suggesting loss of epithelial integrity in NE birds. Segmented filamentous bacteria attached to villi, which play an important role in intestinal immunity, were more numerous in birds exposed to NE. The results suggest that mitochondrial damage may be an important initiator of NE pathogenesis, while H57 maintains epithelium and improves the integrity of intestinal mucosa. Potential actions of H57 are discussed that further define the mechanisms responsible for probiotic bacteria’s role in maintaining gut health.
The caudate lobe of the liver has portal blood supply and hepatic vein drainage independent of the remainder of the liver and may be differentially affected in liver pathologies. Ultrasonographic measurement of the caudate lobe can be used to generate hepatic indices that may indicate cirrhosis. This study investigated the relationship of metrics of the caudate lobe and other morphological features of human livers from a northwest Indian Punjabi population (n = 50) and a UK Caucasian population (n = 25), which may affect the calculation of hepatic indices. The width of the right lobe of the liver was significantly smaller, while the anteroposterior diameter of the caudate lobe and both Harbin’s Index and the Hess Index scores were significantly larger in NWI livers than in UKC livers. The Hess Index score, in particular, is much larger in the NWI population (265 %, p < 0.005). Two caudate lobe features were significantly different between the two populations—the shape of the caudate lobe and the development of the caudate process. This study shows significant population differences exist in several metrics and morphological features of the liver. These differences may affect the calculation of hepatic indices, resulting in a greater percentage of false positives of cirrhosis in the NWI population. Population-specific data are required to correctly determine normal ranges.
We describe an anatomical variation of the right maxillary artery. The variation loops deep, giving off a middle meningeal artery with an extremely short extracranial segment, then bifurcates into unequal branches. The smaller branch passes superficial to the lateral pterygoid head and distributes primarily to the masticatory muscles. The larger partially pierces the lateral pterygoid lower head, re-emerges superficially, branches again and passes into the pterygopalatine fossa. The larger lies superficial to the lingual and inferior alveolar nerves and deep to the buccal nerve. An embryonic development origin of the cranial arteries is suggested.
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