Haplotypes of eight phlebotomine species were characterized by cycle sequencing a mitochondrial (mt) DNA fragment (cytochrome b to NADH1) amplified from single sandflies by PCR. Phlebotomus (Phlebotomus) papatasi displayed little variation throughout its large geographical range. We conclude that this vector of Leishmania major suffered a population bottleneck late in the Pleistocene and then radiated out from the eastern Mediterranean subregion. There was no support for a recent domestic lineage of P. papatasi. The mtDNA molecular clock in phlebotomines (subgenera Phlebotomus and Larroussius) was calibrated by reference to palaeogeographical events in Africa and the Mediterranean subregion. It fitted a pairwise nucleotide sequence divergence rate of 1.0-2.5% per million years. Co-evolution of L. major, its Phlebotomus vectors and mammalian reservoirs is discussed.
The phylogeny and mode of speciation of hlediterranean Plr1ebotontu.r of the subgenus Lnr-iuussiu.c u ere inferred by comparative sequence analyses of a fragment of mitochondria] DNA (Cytochrome b) and of a nuclear gene (Elongation factor alpha). The molecular phylogenies were congruent basally, where their clades matched the species complexes defined by a few genitalic characters of each sex. Reticulate evolution was suggested for the most drrived species complex (Phlebotornus pcm2ciosz1s): the molecular phylogenies were incongruent, and rnitochondrial-marker distribution was consistent Lvith introgressive hybridizations not between sister species but between species whose ranges now overlap or abut. By considering the molecular phylogenies, the mitochondria1 molecular clock and the ecological niches of the species, as \yell as the historical biogeography and palaeoecolo,gy of the blediterraneaii subregon. \ve propose that the derived lineages arose from a sequential series of speciation evcnts associated with habitat shifts promoted by progressive aridification. This 'taxon pulse'-like speciation occurred in the Pliocene, later than previously proposed in a vicariance hypothesis that invoked only tectonic events, but too early for Pleistocene Iceage refugia to have played any role other than the isolation of geographical races. Speciation occurred before the proposed divergence of members of the LxiJhmania donoriani complex and this helped to rule out any vector-parasite co-speciation or co-cladogenesis. 6 '2000 'Ihc Linncan Siicieh of London .ADDITIONAL KE\?VORDS:-Psychodidae phylogeny ~ cpochrome b -Elongation factor alpha -Lrisiinrnnin injknturn -Lpzsiinianiu speciation ~ co-evolution.
Both the urinary and intestinal forms of schistosomiasis are thought to be widespread in the Republic of Yemen, with estimates of 3 million people infected and 600 000 suffering clinical morbidity. Sub-national control has been ongoing since 2006 via the distribution of praziquantel (PZQ) against schistosomiasis and albendazole (ALB) against soil-transmitted helminths using school-based treatment. In preparation for a 6-year nationwide control programme with the aim of expanding treatment to the wider community, a new programmatic approach of complementing school-based distribution with community-based treatment was trialled in 10 highly endemic districts in three governorates in December 2009. The new approach achieved coverage of 90.1% of non-enrolled children: a 40% increase compared with the same districts in 2008, and coverage of 97.9% of enrolled children: a 2% increase compared to 2008. Coverage of females (children and adults) was 81.8%, and of adults in general was 73.9%. The total cost per person treated was US$0.66 (US$0.79 in 2008), which includes training, health education, social mobilization, distribution and drugs. These results provide hope that a combined school and community-based approach can be successfully implemented on a wider scale during the main control programme in 2010-2015, with approximately 10 million people targeted in the first year alone.
A diagnostic kinetoplast deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) probe has been used to identify as Leishmania infantum amastigotes taken from the lesions (in dermal fluid or lesion triturates) of 7 of 8 patients suffering from sporadic cutaneous leishmaniasis in north Tunisia. All 8 isolates were very difficult to culture but, subsequently, sufficient parasites of one isolate have been grown for isoenzyme typing, and were identified as zymodeme MON 24 of L. infantum. The advantages of using recombinant DNA probes for the identification of parasites from lesions are discussed.
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