ObjectiveProprioceptive training is any intervention aiming to improve proprioceptive function with the ultimate goal to enhance motor function and performance. It has been promoted as an approach to enhance athletic performance and as a tool for sensorimotor rehabilitation. Numerous studies sought to provide evidence on the effectiveness of the approach. However, many different training regimes claiming to train proprioception report a variety of sensorimotor measures that are not directly comparable. This, in turn, makes it difficult to assess effectiveness across approaches. It is the objective of this study to systematically review recent empirical evidence to gain an understanding of which outcome measures are most sensitive, which populations may benefit most from proprioceptive training, and what are the effects on proprioceptive and motor systems.MethodsFour major databases were searched. The following inclusion criteria were applied: (1) A quantified pre- and post-treatment measure of proprioceptive function. (2) An intervention or training program believed to influence or enhance proprioceptive function. (3) Contained at least one form of treatment or outcome measure that is indicative of somatosensory function and not confounded by information from other sensory modalities. 4) The study reported of at least one quantified measure of motor performance.ResultsOf the 3,297 articles identified by the database search, 70 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included for further review. Across studies, proprioceptive training led to comparable gains in both proprioceptive (+46%) and motor performance (+45%). The majority of studies (50/70) applied active movement interventions. Interventions applying somatosensory stimulation were most successful in clinical populations. Joint position sense error (JPSE) was the most commonly used proprioceptive measure and presents a reliable and feasible measure for clinical use.ConclusionProprioceptive training can lead to significant improvements in proprioceptive and motor function across a range healthy and clinical populations. Regimens requiring active movement of the trainee tended to be most successful in improving sensorimotor performance. Conclusive evidence on how long training gains are retained is still lacking. There is no solid evidence about the underlying long-term neuroplastic changes associated proprioceptive training.

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The accurate detection and counting of fruits in natural environments are key steps for the early yield estimation of orchards and the realization of smart orchard production management. However, existing citrus counting algorithms have two primary limitations: the performance of counting algorithms needs to be improved, and their system operation efficiency is low in practical applications. Therefore, in this paper, we propose a novel end-to-end orchard fruit counting pipeline that can be used by multiple unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) in parallel to help overcome the above problems. First, to obtain on-board camera images online, an innovative UAV live broadcast platform was developed for the orchard scene. Second, for this challenging specific scene, a detection network named Citrus-YOLO was designed to detect fruits in the video stream in real-time. Then, the DeepSort algorithm was used to assign a specific ID to each citrus fruit in the online UAV scene and track the fruits across video frames. Finally, a nonuniform distributed counter was proposed to correct the fruit count during the tracking process, and this can significantly reduce the counting errors caused by tracking failure. This is the first work to realize online and end-to-end counting in a field orchard environment. The experimental resultsshow that the F1 score and mean absolute percentage error of the method are 89.07% and 12.75%, respectively, indicating that the system can quickly and accurately achieve fruit counting in large-scale unstructured citrus orchards.

Proprioception is defined as the ability to sense limb and body position and motion. Proprioceptive signals originating from the mechanoreceptors around the ankle joint are critical for maintaining postural control and gait. Previous studies identified the detrimental effect of ankle somatosensory dysfunction on sensorimotor function such as balance control. However, a direct measure of ankle proprioception as a marker of proprioceptive dysfunction has not been identified. Recent advances in robotic rehabilitation devices allow precise movement of body segments while maintaining tight control over the exposed joint velocity. Here, we aim to design an ankle robot with 1-degree-of-freedom (DOF) – dorsiflexion/plantarflexion (DFPF) to objectively measure ankle joint proprioception in two aspects - joint position sense, and motion sense. To establish the feasibility of the device to evaluate ankle proprioceptive function, a small sample of healthy adult participants (n = 3) was recruited. A psychophysical 2-alternative forced-choice paradigm was employed for ankle position and motion sense evaluation. The ankle robot passively moved the ankle to one of two different positions or at two different stimulus velocities. Subsequently, participants verbally indicated the farthest position or the fastest motion. Based on their responses, a psychometric function was fitted, and a just-noticeable-difference (JND) threshold was established at the 75% correct response level, which served as a measure of ankle joint proprioception. The mean JND position threshold was 0.73°± 0.01°, and the mean JND motion threshold was 0.62°/s ± 0.05°/s. Test-retest reliability tests in all three subjects yielded the reliability coefficients of rT2 − T1 = 0.974 for JND position threshold, and rT2 − T1 = 0.948 for JND motion threshold. We here demonstrate that the feasibility and reliability of this new device to assess ankle proprioceptive acuity.

Background-Numerous neurological and orthopedic conditions impair ankle proprioception resulting in gait and balance deficits. However, current clinical practice lacks accurate and reliable methods to assess proprioceptive function. To address this gap, we developed a robotic assessment system that provides accurate, objective, and reliable measures of human ankle position and motion sense acuitythat reflectproprioceptive function at this joint.Methods-Ankle position sense and motion sense acuity were assessed in twenty healthy adult participantsemploying a psychophysical two-alternative forced-choice paradigm.An ankle robot deliveredtightly controlled passive, open kinematic ankle dorsiflexion/plantarflexion positions or velocities. The robot passively rotated aparticipant’s ankle to two distinctplantarflexed positions for position sense testing, orthe ankle was plantarflexed at two distinct velocities for motion sense testing. After experiencing the two stimuli, participants verbally indicated which ankle position was more plantarflexedor which motionwas perceived as faster. Based on a participant’s verbal responses, a psychometric function was fitted and the respective discrimination thresholds and intervals of uncertainty were derived. Additionally, test-retest reliability of the threshold measures was determined across three different experimental sessions for a subset of five participants.Results-Analysis yielded a mean position discrimination threshold of 0.80° (SD: ± 0.10°), and a mean motion discrimination threshold of 0.73°/s (SD: ± 0.11°/s). Test-retest reliability of the threshold measures based on the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was moderate to excellent in position sense (range, ICC = 0.86 [0.50 - 0.98]) and motion sense (range, ICC = 0.86 [0.57 - 0.99]) testing.Conclusion -The results demonstrated the utility and reliability ofa robot-aided assessment of human ankle proprioceptive function paving the way to employ such systemsfor the fast and accurate diagnosisof proprioceptive dysfunction in clinical populations.