Accumulating information indicates that plant disease resistance signaling pathways frequently interact with other pathways regulating developmental processes or abiotic stress responses. However, the molecular mechanisms of these types of crosstalk remain poorly understood in most cases. Here we report that OsWRKY13, an activator of rice resistance to both bacterial and fungal pathogens, appears to function as a convergent point for crosstalk among the pathogen-induced salicylate-dependent defense pathway and five other physiologic pathways. Genome-wide analysis of the expression profiles of OsWRKY13-overexpressing lines suggests that OsWRKY13 directly or indirectly regulates the expression of more than 500 genes that are potentially involved in different physiologic processes according to the classification of the Gene Ontology database. By comparing the expression patterns of genes functioning in known pathways or cellular processes of pathogen infection and the phenotypes between OsWRKY13-overexpressing and wild-type plants, our data suggest that OsWRKY13 is also a regulator of other physiologic processes during pathogen infection. The OsWRKY13-associated disease resistance pathway synergistically interacts via OsWRKY13 with the glutathione/glutaredoxin system and flavonoid biosynthesis pathway to monitor redox homeostasis and to putatively enhance the biosynthesis of antimicrobial flavonoid phytoalexins, respectively, in OsWRKY13-overexpressing lines. Meanwhile, the OsWRKY13-associated disease resistance pathway appears to interact antagonistically with the SNAC1-mediated abiotic stress defense pathway, jasmonic acid signaling pathway, and terpenoid metabolism pathway via OsWRKY13 to suppress salt and cold defense responses as well as to putatively retard rice growth and development.
Nanosized metal-organic frameworks (nanoMOFs) MIL-100(Fe) are highly porous and biodegradable materials that have emerged as promising drug nanocarriers. A challenging issue concerns their surface functionalization in order to evade the immune system and to provide molecular recognition ability, so that they can be used for specific targeting. A convenient method for their coating with tetraethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, and mannose residues is reported herein. The method consists of the organic solvent-free self-assembly on the nanoMOFs of building blocks based on β-cyclodextrin facially derivatized with the referred functional moieties, and multiple phosphate groups to anchor to the nanoparticles’ surface. The coating of nanoMOFs with cyclodextrin phosphate without further functional groups led to a significant decrease of macrophage uptake, slightly improved by polyethylene glycol or mannose-containing cyclodextrin phosphate coating. More notably, nanoMOFs modified with tetraethylene glycol-containing cyclodextrin phosphate displayed the most efficient “stealth” effect. Mannose-coated nanoMOFs displayed a remarkably enhanced binding affinity towards a specific mannose receptor, such as Concanavalin A, due to the multivalent display of the monosaccharide, as well as reduced macrophage internalization. Coating with tetraethylente glycol of nanoMOFs after loading with doxorubicin is also described. Therefore, phosphorylated cyclodextrins offer a versatile platform to coat nanoMOFs in an organic solvent-free, one step manner, providing them with new biorecognition and/or “stealth” properties.
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