and an Hli-like polypeptide. By using an epitope tag to identify specifically the different Hli polypeptides, the accumulation of each (excluding HemH) was examined under various environmental conditions. The levels of all of the Hli polypeptides were elevated in high light and during nitrogen limitation, whereas HliA, HliB, and HliC also accumulated to high levels following exposure to sulfur deprivation and low temperature. The temporal pattern of accumulation was significantly different among the different Hli polypeptides. HliC rapidly accumulated in high light, and its level remained high for at least 24 h. HliA and HliB also accumulated rapidly, but their levels began to decline 9 -12 h following the imposition of high light. HliD was transiently expressed in high light and was not detected 24 h after the initiation of high light exposure. These results demonstrate that there is specificity to the accumulation of the Hli polypeptides under a diverse range of environmental conditions. Furthermore, mutants for the individual and combinations of the hli genes were evaluated for their fitness to grow in high light. Although all of the mutants grew as fast as wild-type cells in low light, strains inactivated for hliA or hliC/hliD were unable to compete with wild-type cells during co-cultivation in high light. A mutant lacking all four hli genes gradually lost its photosynthesis capacity and died in high light. Hence, the Hli polypeptides are critical for survival when Synechocystis PCC6803 is absorbing excess excitation energy and may allow the cells to cope more effectively with the production of reactive oxygen species.Light serves as an environmental signal that regulates physiological and developmental processes and provides energy that fuels the reduction of inorganic carbon. However, when photosynthetic organisms absorb excess excitation energy (more than can be used in photosynthesis), the light energy can cause damage to the cell (3, 4). There are several ways in which excess, absorbed, light energy can be harmful to photosynthetic organisms. It can accumulate in light-harvesting antenna complexes and reaction centers and promote the formation of singlet oxygen, superoxides, and hydroxyl radicals, all of which are highly reactive and potentially toxic. Reactive oxygen species could modify proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, ultimately causing a loss of cell viability (5).The photosynthetic reaction center polypeptide D1, or the 32-kDa polypeptide, is particularly susceptible to damage as a consequence of absorption of excess excitation energy (3, 6 -8); this was first recognized by Kyle et al. (9). The 32-kDa polypeptide, together with the D2 polypeptide, forms the heterodimeric reaction center of photosystem II that binds all of the redox components involved in photosynthetic charge separation. The rapid restoration of photosystem II function following photodamage indicates the existence of a tightly regulated repair system (3). Repair processes include the degradation of damaged D1 polypeptide, de no...

Traits such as grain shape, panicle length and seed shattering, play important roles in grain yield and harvest. In this study, the cloning and functional analysis of PANICLE TRAITS 2 (PT2), a novel gene from the Indica rice Chuandali (CDL), is reported. PT2 is synonymous with Growth‐Regulating Factor 4 (OsGRF4), which encodes a growth‐regulating factor that positively regulates grain shape and panicle length and negatively regulates seed shattering. Higher expression of OsGRF4 is correlated with larger grain, longer panicle and lower seed shattering. A unique OsGRF4 mutation, which occurs at the OsmiRNA396 target site of OsGRF4, seems to be associated with high levels of OsGRF4 expression, and results in phenotypic difference. Further research showed that OsGRF4 regulated two cytokinin dehydrogenase precursor genes (CKX5 and CKX1) resulting in increased cytokinin levels, which might affect the panicle traits. High storage capacity and moderate seed shattering of OsGRF4 may be useful in high‐yield breeding and mechanized harvesting of rice. Our findings provide additional insight into the molecular basis of panicle growth.

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The high light-inducible polypeptides (HLIPs) are critical for survival under high light (HL) conditions in Synechocystis PCC 6803. In this article, we determined the localization of all four HLIPs in thylakoid protein complexes and examined effects of hli gene deletion on the photosynthetic protein complexes. The HliA and HliB proteins were found to be associated with trimeric photosystem I (PSI) complexes and the Slr1128 protein, whereas HliC was associated with PsaL and TMP14. The HliD was associated with partially dissociated PSI complexes. The PSI activities of the hli mutants were 3-to 4-fold lower than that of the wild type. The hli single mutants lost more than 30% of the PSI trimers after they were incubated in intermediate HL for 12 h. The reduction of PSI trimers were further augmented in these cells by the increase of light intensity. The quadruple hli deletion mutant contained less than one-half of PSI trimers following 12-h incubation in intermediate HL. It lost essentially all of the PSI trimers upon exposure to HL for 12 h. Furthermore, a mutant lacking both PSI trimers and Slr1128 showed growth defects similar to that of the quadruple hli deletion mutant under different light conditions. These results suggest that the HLIPs stabilize PSI trimers, interact with Slr1128, and protect cells under HL conditions.

We have deleted a gene for a sensor histidine kinase, dspA (or hik33), in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC6803. In low and moderate light, the mutant grew slowly under photoautotrophic conditions, with a doubling time of ϳ40 h, and had severely reduced photosynthetic oxygen evolution. When the mutant was maintained in low or moderate light in the presence of glucose, its growth rate was only somewhat lower than that of wild-type cells. However, the mutant was light sensitive and rapidly died in high light. Furthermore, levels of many transcripts encoding genes associated with photosynthesis were altered in the mutant relative to wild-type Synechocystis sp. strain PCC6803 both in low light and following exposure to high light. There was constitutive expression of several high-light-inducible genes, including hli, psbAIII, and gpx2; there was little increased accumulation of sodB mRNA in high light; and the cells failed to accumulate cpcBA and psaAB mRNAs in low light in the presence of glucose, although a normal decline in the levels of these mRNAs was observed during exposure to high light. These results suggest that DspA is involved in controlling sets of photosynthetic and high-light-responsive genes, either directly or indirectly. These and other results, some of which are presented in a companion paper (

Transcript accumulation and translation of psbA as well as processing of the D1 precursor protein were investigated in relation to chlorophyll availability in vivo in cyanobacterial strains lacking photosystem I (PS I). The psbA transcript level was almost independent of chlorophyll availability and was Ϸ3-fold lower in darkness than in continuous light (5 E m ؊2 s ؊1 ). Upon illumination, it reached a steadystate level within several hours. Upon growth under lightactivated heterotrophic growth conditions (LAHG) in the PS I-less strain, D1 synthesis occurred immediately upon illumination. However, in PS I-less͞chlL ؊ cells, which lacked the light-independent chlorophyll biosynthesis pathway and had very low chlorophyll levels after LAHG growth, very little D1 synthesis occurred upon illumination, and the synthesis rate increased with time. This result suggests a translational control of D1 biosynthesis related to chlorophyll availability. Upon illumination, initially a high level of the nonprocessed D1 precursor was observed by pulse labeling and immunodetection in LAHG-grown PS I-less͞chlL؊ cells but not in PS I-less cells. A significant amount of the D1 precursor eventually was processed to mature D1, and the half-life of the D1 precursor decreased as the chlorophyll content of the cells increased. The D1 processing enzyme CtpA was found to be present at similar levels regardless illumination or chlorophyll levels. We conclude that, directly or indirectly, chlorophyll availability is needed for D1 translation as well as for efficient processing of the D1 precursor.

Significance The photosynthetic cyanobacteria are promising candidates for the sustainable production of a plethora of plant secondary metabolites, which are difficult to produce and purify in other systems. Many secondary metabolites are beneficial to human health. For instance, the phenylpropanoids, which are derived from p -coumaric acid, have anticancer, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory properties. Here, we constructed a strain of cyanobacterium Synechocystis 6803 that heterologously expressed a foreign gene encoding a tyrosine ammonia lyase, which converts tyrosine into p -coumaric acid and lacked a native laccase that degrades p- coumaric acid. The strain secreted ∼82.6 mg/L p -coumaric acid, which was readily extracted and purified from the culture medium. We thus show that cyanobacteria may indeed be used to sustainably produce plant secondary metabolites.