To construct maternal phylogeny and prehistoric dispersals of modern human being in the Indian sub continent, a diverse subset of 641 complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genomes belonging to macrohaplogroup M was chosen from a total collection of 2,783 control-region sequences, sampled from 26 selected tribal populations of India. On the basis of complete mtDNA sequencing, we identified 12 new haplogroups - M53 to M64; redefined/ascertained and characterized haplogroups M2, M3, M4, M5, M6, M8′C′Z, M9, M10, M11, M12-G, D, M18, M30, M33, M35, M37, M38, M39, M40, M41, M43, M45 and M49, which were previously described by control and/or coding-region polymorphisms. Our results indicate that the mtDNA lineages reported in the present study (except East Asian lineages M8′C′Z, M9, M10, M11, M12-G, D ) are restricted to Indian region.The deep rooted lineages of macrohaplogroup ‘M’ suggest in-situ origin of these haplogroups in India. Most of these deep rooting lineages are represented by multiple ethnic/linguist groups of India. Hierarchical analysis of molecular variation (AMOVA) shows substantial subdivisions among the tribes of India (Fst = 0.16164). The current Indian mtDNA gene pool was shaped by the initial settlers and was galvanized by minor events of gene flow from the east and west to the restricted zones. Northeast Indian mtDNA pool harbors region specific lineages, other Indian lineages and East Asian lineages. We also suggest the establishment of an East Asian gene in North East India through admixture rather than replacement.

No abstract

No abstract

Karnataka is the most populous state in South India. The Government of Karnataka constituted a committee under the chairpersonship of one of the sitting women members of the Karnataka Legislative Council to study the conditions of the sex workers in the state. This committee has submitted its report to the Karnataka government recently. This study has interviewed around 11,000 sex workers across the state and collected the required information about their present condition. Data have been collected through the schedule having 169 questions and interviewing the respondents. Sex workers were identified through the district councillors for the survey. The committee has estimated more than 300,000 women are involved in this work, a majority of them are from lower social groups having a low income. The study has found that in the initial stage, women are being stepped into this job merely because of trafficking or to earn more money for life, or are sold unwittingly to the pimps by relatives or friends. Once they get stuck in this vicious cycle, women continue to be sex workers only because of no other exit. It is found that women continue to be sex workers as long as demand or beauty prevails in the market. When demand decreases, they continue in the field as a supplier/agent (pimps). The study has found that a majority of them are being trafficked from Maharashtra and Goa to Karnataka. The study found migration, drought, unemployment, early marriage divorce, poverty, etc., as some of the reasons for entering in this job. Shockingly, the report has revealed that married women are more engaged in this occupation. The more interesting issue is that around 26 per cent of women/girls have entered into this sex work job just to buy a good mobile, to get a good dress, for pocket money, etc. The report further says that more than 17–20 per cent of them are HIV infected. The study finally suggests that awareness creation, atrocity prevention, resolving rehabilitation and empowerment should be the part and parcel of any policy for the welfare of the sex workers. This article is based on the findings of the study report submitted to government by the committee.

No abstract