Many insects possess the ability to detect fine fluctuations in the environmental CO2 concentration. In herbivorous species, plant-emitted CO2, in combination with other sensory cues, affect many behaviors including foraging and oviposition. In contrast to the comprehensive knowledge obtained on the insect olfactory pathway in recent years, we still know little about the central CO2 system. By utilizing intracellular labeling and mass staining, we report the neuroanatomy of projection neurons connected with the CO2 sensitive antennal-lobe glomerulus, the labial pit organ glomerulus (LPOG), in the noctuid moth, Helicoverpa armigera. We identified 15 individual LPOG projection neurons passing along different tracts. Most of these uniglomerular neurons terminated in the lateral horn, a previously well-described target area of plant-odor projection neurons originating from the numerous ordinary antennal-lobe glomeruli. The other higher-order processing area for odor information, the calyces, on the other hand, was weakly innervated by the LPOG neurons. The overlapping LPOG terminals in the lateral horn, which is considered important for innate behavior in insects, suggests the biological importance of integrating the CO2 input with plant odor information while the weak innervation of the calyces indicates the insignificance of this ubiquitous cue for learning mechanisms.

S-1 is a novel oral fluoropyrimidine derivative, widely used for treating gastric, pancreatic, lung, head, neck and breast carcinomas. It is designed to enhance the clinical utility of an oral fluoropyrimidine and is associated with low gastrointestinal toxicity. S-1 consists of three pharmacological agents (at a molar ratio of 1:0.4:1)-Tegafur (FT), a prodrug of 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU), 5-Chloro-2-4-Dihydroxypyridine (CDHP), which inhibits the activity of Dihydropyrimidine Dehydrogenase (DPD) and Oxonic Acid (Oxo), which reduces Gastrointestinal (GI) toxicity of 5-FU. The present article reviews the current development of clinical study of S-1. It is widely used for treating gastric, pancreatic, lung, head, neck, and breast carcinomas. FT is a prodrug that is converted by liver Cytochrome P4502A6 (CYP2A6) to 5-FU. 5-FU is then actively catabolized by liver into inactive metabolites. About 90% of FU is converted to inactive metabolites by enzyme DPD. Hence, remaining 10% would be responsible for anti-tumour activity. It owes its anti-tumour properties to the production of 5-FU, which is gradually converted from FT, following oral administration of S-1. Both CDHP and potassium Oxo act as bio-modulators to impart better anti-cancer effect of 5-FU and do not have any anti-tumour activity by themselves. CDHP inhibits DPD enzyme, that is responsible for inactivation of 5-FU and is 180 times more active than uracil in-vitro. Potassium Oxo, which is Orotate

Lepidopteran species detect CO 2 via a specialized organ located on the peripheral segment of the labial palps, the labial palp pit organ (LPO). Based on tracing of LPO sensory neurons targeting one distinct antennal-lobe glomerulus, Kent and her colleagues described the projections originating from the LPO in the sphinx moth as "an accessory olfactory pathway in Lepidoptera" already in the 1980 ties. In spite of similar reports from studies of other lepidopteran species, however, it has been an unresolved issue whether additional termination areas of the labial nerve, such as the gnathal ganglion (GNG) and the ventral nerve cord, are actually output sites of LPO neurons. Since the previous studies have interpreted slightly differently about the projection pattern occurring from the classical mass staining, we performed selective mass staining from the inside of the pit and from the outer surface of the peripheral palp. The results demonstrated that the LPO sensory neurons project exclusively to the LPO glomerulus (LPOG), whereas the non-LPO sensory neurons target the GNG and the ventral nerve cord. Additional iontophoretic staining of individual LPO sensory neurons, performed from the LPO and the LPOG, showed three morphological neuron types: one bilateral targeting the LPOG in both antennal lobes, one unilateral targeting the ipsilateral LPOG only, and one contralateral targeting the LPOG in the other antennal lobe. Finally, to explore putative differences in the projection pattern of neurons housed by two previously reported sensillum types in the pit, i.e., hair-shaped sensilla located distally and club-shaped sensilla located proximally, we performed mass staining from two different levels of the peripheral palp. We found a projection pattern implying stronger innervation of the ipsi-than the contralateral LPOG in both staining experiments.

Objective The aim of this research is to investigate the perspective of citizens of Nepal on the management COVID‐19, the roll‐out of the vaccine, and to gain an understanding of attitudes towards the governments' handling of the COVID‐19 pandemic. Method A qualitative methodology was used. In‐depth interviews were conducted with 18 males and 23 females aged between 20 and 86 years old from one remote and one urban district of Nepal. Interviews were conducted in November and December 2021. A thematic approach was used to analyse the data, utilising NVivo 12 data management software. Result Three major themes were identified: (1) Peoples' perspective on the management of COVID‐19, (2) people's perception of the management of COVID‐19 vaccination and (3) management and dissemination of information. It was found that most participants had heard of COVID‐19 and its mitigation measures, however, the majority had limited understanding and knowledge about the disease. Most participants expressed their disappointment concerning poor testing, quarantine, vaccination campaigns and poor accountability from the government towards the management of COVID‐19. Misinformation and stigma were reported as the major factors contributing to the spread of COVID‐19. People's knowledge and understanding were mainly shaped by the quality of the information they received from various sources of communication and social media. This heavily influenced their response to the pandemic, the preventive measures they followed and their attitude towards vaccination. Conclusion Our study concludes that the study participants' perception was that testing, quarantine centres and vaccination campaigns were poorly managed in both urban and rural settings in Nepal. Since people's knowledge and understanding of COVID‐19 are heavily influenced by the quality of information they receive, we suggest providing contextualised correct information through a trusted channel regarding the pandemic, its preventive measures and vaccination. This study recommends that the government proactively involve grassroots‐level volunteers like Female Community Health Volunteers to effectively prepare for future pandemics. Patient and Public Contribution This study was based on in‐depth interviews with 41 people from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. This study would not have been possible without their participation.