Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has developed as one of the major urgent threats to public health causing serious issues to successful prevention and treatment of persistent diseases. In spite of different actions taken in recent decades to tackle this issue, the trends of global AMR demonstrate no signs of slowing down. Misusing and overusing different antibacterial agents in the health care setting as well as in the agricultural industry are considered the major reasons behind the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. In addition, the spontaneous evolution, mutation of bacteria, and passing the resistant genes through horizontal gene transfer are significant contributors to antimicrobial resistance. Many studies have demonstrated the disastrous financial consequences of AMR including extremely high healthcare costs due to an increase in hospital admissions and drug usage. The literature review, which included articles published after the year 2012, was performed using Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar with the utilization of keyword searches. Results indicated that the multifactorial threat of antimicrobial resistance has resulted in different complex issues affecting countries across the globe. These impacts found in the sources are categorized into three different levels: patient, healthcare, and economic. Although gaps in knowledge about AMR and areas for improvement are obvious, there is not any clearly understood progress to put an end to the persistent trends of antimicrobial resistance.

Background The store-and-forward camera-based evaluation of the eye, or teleophthalmology, is an effective way to identify diabetic retinopathy, the leading cause of blindness in the United States, but uptake has been slow. Understanding the barriers to and facilitators of implementing teleophthalmology programs from those actively adopting, running, and sustaining such programs is important for widespread adoption. Objective This study aims to understand the factors that are important in introducing teleophthalmology to improve access to diagnostic eye care for patients with diabetes in primary care clinics by using implementation science. Methods This qualitative study in 3 urban, low-income, largely racial and ethnic minority–serving safety-net primary care clinics in Rochester, New York, interviewed nurses and physicians on implementing a teleophthalmology program by using questions informed by the Practical, Robust Implementation and Sustainability Model and the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research. Results Primary care nurses operationalizing the program in their clinics saw increased work burden and a lack of self-efficacy as barriers. Continuous training on the teleophthalmology process for nurses, physicians, and administrative staff through in-service and peer training by champions and superusers were identified by interviewees as needs. Facilitators included the perceived convenience for the patient and a perceived educational advantage to the program, as it gave an opportunity for providers to discuss the importance of eye care with patients. Concerns in making and tracking referrals to ophthalmology because of challenges related to care coordination were highlighted. The financial aspects of the program (eg, patient coverage and care provider reimbursement) were unclear to many staff members, influencing adoption and sustainability. Conclusions Streamlining processes and workflows, training and assigning adequate staff, effectively coordinating care between primary care and eye care to improve follow-ups, and ensuring financial viability can all help streamline the adoption of teleophthalmology.

BACKGROUND Store and forward camera based evaluation or teleophthalmology is considered an effective way to identify diabetic retinopathy, the leading cause of blindness in the United States, but uptake has been slow. OBJECTIVE Understanding the barriers and facilitators of implementing teleophthalmology programs from those actively adopting, running, and sustaining such programs is important for widespread adoption. METHODS This qualitative study in three urban low-income, largely minority-serving safety-net primary care clinics in Rochester, NY, USA interviewed nurses and doctors on implementing a teleophthalmology program using questions informed by Practical, Robust Implementation and Sustainability Model (PRISM) and Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) frameworks. RESULTS Primary care nurses operationalizing the program in their clinics saw increased work burden and lack of self-efficacy as barriers. Continuous training on the teleophthalmology process for nurses, doctors, and administrative staff through in-service and peer-training by champions/super-users were identified by interviewees as needs. Facilitators included the perceived convenience for the patient and a perceived educational advantage to the program as it gave an opportunity for providers to discuss the importance of eye care with patients. Concerns in making and tracking referrals to ophthalmology due to challenges related to care coordination were highlighted. Financial aspects of the program (e.g. patient coverage and care provider reimbursement) were unclear to many staff, influencing adoption and sustainability. CONCLUSIONS Streamlining of processes and workflows, training and assigning adequate staff, effective care coordination between primary care and eye care to improve follow-ups, and ensuring financial viability can all help streamline the adoption of teleophthalmology.