The grass snake (Natrix natrix) is Europe's most widely distributed and, in many regions, most common snake species, with many morphologically defined subspecies. Yet, the taxonomy of grass snakes is relatively little studied and recent work has shown major conflicts between morphologically defined subspecies and phylogeographical differentiation. Using external morphology, osteological characters, and information from 13 microsatellite loci and two mitochondrial markers, we examine differentiation of the subspecies N. n. astreptophora from the North African Maghreb region, the Iberian Peninsula and neighbouring France. According to previous studies, N. n. astreptophora corresponds to a deeply divergent mitochondrial clade and constitutes the sister taxon of all remaining grass snakes. In the French Pyrenees region, there is a contact zone of N. n. astreptophora with another subspecies, N. n. helvetica. Our analyses of microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA reveal that the distribution ranges of the two taxa abut there, but both hybridize only exceptionally. Even though many morphological characters are highly variable and homoplastic in grass snakes, N. n. astreptophora differs consistently from all other grass snakes by its reddish iris coloration and in having significantly fewer ventral scales and another skull morphology. Considering further the virtual absence of gene flow between N. n. astreptophora and N. n. helvetica, and acknowledging the morphological distinctiveness of N. n. astreptophora and its sister group relationship to all remaining subspecies of grass snakes, we conclude that Natrix astreptophora (Seoane, 1884) should be recognized as a distinct species. Further research is needed to explore whether N. astreptophora is polytypic because a single sample of N. astreptophora from Tunisia turned out to be genetically highly distinct from its European conspecifics.
Mimicking venomous species is widespread among animals, especially snakes. This concerns both visual and behavioral mimicry. Raising the forepart of the body and flattening the neck are characteristic defense behaviors of cobras and mimicked by several non-venomous snake species that co-occur with them. Here we describe the cobra stance for grass snakes (Natrix natrix complex), whose distribution range is largely allopatric to any living cobra species. Among the various defensive behaviors of grass snakes, the cobra stance is uncommon and rarely reported, which raises the questions how effective it is and why it evolved. The fossil record indicates that cobras and grass snakes were abundant and widespread across Europe during the Miocene, where they inhabited the same habitats. They continued to be sympatric in the Mediterranean region until the Pliocene, and in the eastern Mediterranean perhaps until the Middle Pleistocene. Thus, we hypothesize that the cobra stance represents a ’fossil behavior’, which developed when the distribution ranges of grass snakes and cobras broadly overlapped. The absence of cobras in most of the extant distribution range of grass snakes, and hence unfamiliarity of typical predators with these dangerously venomous snakes since the Plio-/Pleistocene, explains its rarity nowadays because displaying the cobra stance is no longer advantageous. Migrating birds from Africa, however, may still serve to some extent as target species for the cobra stance in grass snakes, supporting its survival.
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