Several consequences of health effects from municipal solid waste caused by carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic metals have been recognized. The water quality index ( WQI ) in the groundwater around this landfill is 2945.58, which is unacceptable for consumption. The contaminated groundwater mainly appears within a 1 km radius around the landfill. The metal pollution levels in the soil in descending order were Cu > Cd > Zn=Cr > Pb > Ni. The pollution degree (ER) of Cd was 2898.88, and the potential ecological risk index (RI) was 2945.58, indicating that the risk level was very high. Surprisingly, the hazard index (HI) of Pb (2.05) and Fe (1.59) in children was higher than 1. This indicated that the chronic risk and cancer risk caused by Pb and Fe for children were at a medium level. Carcinogenic risk by oral (CR oral) consumption of Ni, Cd, and Cr in children was 1.4E − 04, 2.5E − 04, and 1.8E − 04, respectively, while the lifetime carcinogenic risk (LCR) of Ni, Cd, and Cr in children was 1.5E − 04, 2.8E − 04, and 2.0E − 04, respectively. In adults, CR oral of Ni and Cr were 1.6E − 03 and 3.0E − 04, respectively, while LCR of Ni and Cr were 1.6E − 03 and 3.4E − 04, respectively, which exceeded the carcinogenic risks limits. Our study indicated a lifetime carcinogenic risk to humans. Environmental surveillance should focus on reducing health risks such as continuous monitoring of the groundwater, soil, and leachate treatment process.

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Crocodile oil is a highly effective treatment for ailments ranging from skin conditions to cancer. However, the effects of the oil on liver detoxification pathways are not well studied. This study aimed to investigate the effects of crocodile oil on the detoxification enzyme activities and the mRNA expressions of cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2), cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1), and glutathione S-transferase (GST) in rats. The rats were divided into four groups (n = 7/group): rats received a standard diet (C), a high-fat diet or HFD (H), and HFD with 1 ml (HCO1) and 3 ml (HCO3) of the oil per kg body weight. Interestingly, the oil yields from this study presented alpha-linolenic acid (0.96%) at similar levels compared with fish oil. The results revealed that HFD significantly increased the activity and relative gene expression of CYP1A2 in the H group ( P < 0.05 ), whereas 3% crocodile oil normalized the enzyme activities compared to the C group. This suggested inhibiting the HFD-induced expression of CYP1A2 mediated by the omega-3 fatty acids found in the oil. Also, crocodile oil supplementation did not reduce the activities of GST. However, the relative gene expression of GSTA1 was significantly decreased ( P < 0.05 ) in the HCO1 and HCO3 groups compared to the H group, which might be attributed to the lower lipid peroxidation that occurred in the liver tissues. Therefore, it could be suggested that using crocodile oil could help in liver detoxification through the CYP1A2 even when offered with a HFD.

Background and Aim: The crocodile is a model for studying relevant sources of environmental contamination. They were determined an appropriate biomonitoring species for various toxins. The cytosolic and microsomal fraction of crocodiles plays a role in detoxifying xenobiotics. Cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) metabolizes aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) to aflatoxin M1, while glutathione-S-transferase (GST) catalyzes carcinogenic agents. This study aimed to investigate the GST activity in various organs of Crocodylus siamensis. Further, the fate of microsomal and cytosolic fractions from various crocodile organs against AFB1-induced apoptosis in human hepatocarcinoma (HepG2) cells was investigated. Materials and Methods: The liver, lungs, intestines, and kidneys tissues from a 3-year-old crocodile (C. siamensis) (n=5) were collected. The cytosolic and microsomal fraction of all tissues was extracted, and protein concentrations were measured with a spectrophotometer. Subsequently, a comparison of GST activity from various organs was carried out by spectrophotometry, and the protective effects of CYP450 and GST activity from various crocodile organs were studied. In vitro AFB1-induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells was detected by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Comparisons between the metabolisms of the detoxification enzyme in organs were tested using the Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance and Dunn's multiple comparison tests. All kinetic parameters were analyzed using GraphPad Prism software version 5.01 (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, USA). Results: Total GST activity in the liver was significantly higher than in the kidneys, intestines, and lungs (p<0.05, respectively). The highest GST pi (GSTP) activity was found in the liver, while the highest GST alpha-isoform activity was in the crocodile lung. The kinetics of total GST and GST mu activity in the liver had the highest velocity compared to other organs. In contrast, the kinetics of GSTP enzyme activity was the highest in the intestine. The in vitro study of microsome and cytosol extract against apoptosis induced by AFB1 revealed that the level of messenger RNA expression of the Bax and Bad genes of HepG2 cells decreased in the treatment group in a combination of cytosolic and microsomal fractions of the crocodile liver but not for Bcl-2. Interestingly, the downregulated expression of Bax and Bad genes was also found in the microsome and cytosol of crocodile kidneys. Conclusion: The crocodile liver revealed very effective GST activity and expression of the highest kinetic velocity compared to other organs. The combination of liver microsomal and cytosolic fractions could be used to prevent cell apoptosis induced by AFB1. However, further study of the molecular approaches to enzyme activity and apoptosis prevention mechanisms should be carried out.