Hepatotoxic microcystins (MCs) are the most commonly reported cyanotoxins in eutrophic freshwaters. In 1996, human intoxications by MCs caused deaths of 76 patients at Caruaru dialysis centers in Brazil. So far, there have been no direct evidences of MC occurrence in human tissue in consequence of exposure to MC. In this study, we improved cleanup procedures for detecting MCs in serum sample using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and confirmed for the first time the presence of MCs in serum samples (average 0.39 ng/ml, which amounts to ca. 1/87 of the concentrations found in tissue samples of the Caruaru victims) of fishermen at Lake Chaohu. Daily intake by the fishermen was estimated to be in the range of 2.2-3.9 microg MC-LReq, whereas the provisional World Health Organization tolerable daily intake (TDI) for daily lifetime exposure is 0.04 microg/kg or 2-3 microg per person. Moreover, statistical analysis showed closer positive relationships between MC serum concentrations and concentrations of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and lactate dehydrogenase than between the MC concentrations and other biochemical indicators. Thus, the data raise the question whether extended exposure in the range of the TDI or up to a factor of 10 above it may already lead to indication of liver damage. The results also demonstrate a risk of health effects from chronic exposure to MCs at least for populations with high levels of exposure, like these fishermen.

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Lake Donghu is a 32-km 2 shallow, subtropical lake near the Yangtze River (P.R. China) that has experienced dramatic changes in the past five decades. These changes include: (1) a trophic state change from mesotrophy to hypertrophy; (2) dense blooms of cyanobacteria during every summer from the 1970s to 1984; (3) a cessation of blooms starting in 1985, with no recurrence; and (4) an increase, coincident with bloom declines, in the production of silver and bighead carp (filter-feeders) by more than tenfold. There are several possible explanations for the disappearance of blooms, including changes in nutrient concentrations, increased zooplankton grazing, and increased grazing on algae by fish. The longterm data suggest that changes in nutrients or in zooplankton were not important, but that the remarkably increased fish densities might have played the key role. To test this hypothesis, in situ enclosure experiments were conducted in three years. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) an increased stocking of the lake with carp played a decisive role in the elimination of cyanobacteria blooms; (2) both silver and bighead carp can eliminate cyanobacteria blooms directly by grazing; (3) zooplankton cannot suppress the blooms; and (4) the lake still is vulnerable to the outbreak of blooms, should fish grazing decline. The critical biomass of carp is approximately 50 g m 3 . The results suggest the applicability of a new food-web manipulation (increased stocking with filter-feeding fish) for controlling cyanobacteria blooms in hypereutrophic lakes. The approach differs from traditional biomanipulation in Europe and North America, where piscivores are added to control planktivores, and this in turn increases zooplankton and decreases algae. The new biomanipulation method is being used or being tested to counteract cyanobacteria blooms in many Chinese lakes such as Lake Dianchi

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