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Understanding virus shedding patterns of avian influenza virus (AIV) in poultry is important for understanding host-pathogen interactions and developing effective control strategies. Many AIV strains were studied in challenge experiments in poultry, but no study has combined data from those studies to identify general AIV shedding patterns. These systematic review and meta-analysis were performed to summarize qualitative and quantitative information on virus shedding levels and duration for different AIV strains in experimentally infected poultry species. Methods were designed based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Four electronic databases were used to collect literature. A total of 1155 abstract were screened, with 117 studies selected for the qualitative analysis and 71 studies for the meta-analysis. A large heterogeneity in experimental methods was observed and the quantitative analysis showed that experimental variables such as species, virus origin, age, inoculation route and dose, affect virus shedding (mean, peak and duration) for highly pathogenic AIV (HPAIV), low pathogenic AIV (LPAIV) or both. In conclusion, this study highlights the need to standardize experimental procedures, it provides a comprehensive summary of the shedding patterns of AIV strains by infected poultry and identifies the variables that influence the level and duration of AIV shedding.

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Objectives To explore the effects of using different indicators to quantify antimicrobial usage (AMU) in livestock and compare outcomes with antimicrobial resistance (AMR) data. Methods Three indicators were used to quantify AMU, two indicators in which the denominator varied: defined daily doses per average mass of the animals present per year (DDD/AY) and defined daily doses per population correction unit (DDD/PCU) and one in which the numerator varied: milligrams of active ingredient per PCU (mg/PCU). AMU was compared with antimicrobial resistance data from the national monitoring programme from 2013 to 2018 with the proportion of Escherichia coli isolates fully susceptible to a predefined panel of antimicrobials for the broiler, dairy cattle and pig farming livestock sectors in the Netherlands. Results The ranking of livestock sectors differs between sectors when using different indicators to express AMU. Dairy cattle rank lowest when expressing AMU in DDD/AY, followed by pigs and broilers corresponding to the rankings of the sectors for AMR. When changing the denominator to PCU, the ranking in AMU is reversed: use ranks highest in dairy cattle and lowest broilers. Conclusions Using different denominators in AMU indicators has a major impact on measured use. This might result in misinterpretation of effects of interventions on AMU and the associations of AMU with AMR across animal sectors. From an epidemiological perspective, indicators that take into account time at risk of exposure to antimicrobials are to be preferred and reflect the AMR risk most accurately.

IntroductionThe urgency of preventing the increase of antimicrobial resistance has been emphasized by international authorities such as the World Health Organization, European Medicines Agency, and World Organization for Animal Health. Monitoring systems capable of reporting antimicrobial consumption data are regarded as a crucial pillar of this fight. The Vet-AMNet system was developed to collect and analyze national antimicrobial consumption data in Portuguese dairy farms to support the veterinary authority in stewardship actions and to assist both veterinarians and farmers in daily decisions related to antimicrobials.MethodsTo evaluate the robustness of the system and other identified critical success factors, it was used to analyze antimicrobial consumption data available from the Dutch dairy cow sector over the period from 2012 to 2020. The data previously used for publications by the Netherlands Veterinary Medicines Institute (SDa) were imported and pre-processed by the Vet-AMNet system according to the SDa's standard operating procedure and the Dutch metrics to measure antimicrobial consumption were calculated.ResultsBy comparing the outputs with the figures generated by the system established in the Netherlands, the Portuguese system was validated. Antimicrobial consumption data from the Dutch dairy sector during the 9-year period will be presented in unpublished graphs and tables, where each molecule's pharmaceutical formulation, pharmacotherapeutic group and line of choice will be related and discussed, illustrating the evolution of sectorial antimicrobial consumption against a background of a strong national antimicrobial policy initiated by public-private cooperation and supported by legislation.

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