Viral infections are often accompanied by extensive proliferation of reactive CD8 T cells. After a defined number of divisions, normal somatic cells enter a nonreplicative stage termed senescence. In the present study we have identified the inhibitory killer cell lectin-like receptor G1 (KLRG1) as a unique marker for replicative senescence of murine CD8 T cells. KLRG1 expression was induced in a substantial portion (30–60%) of CD8 T cells in C57BL/6 mice infected with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), vesicular stomatitis virus, or vaccinia virus. Similarly, KLRG1 was found on a large fraction of LCMV gp33 peptide-specific TCR-transgenic (tg) effector and memory cells activated in vivo using an adoptive transfer model. Transfer experiments with CFSE-labeled TCR-tg cells into LCMV-infected hosts further indicated that induction of KLRG1 expression required an extensive number of cell divisions. Most importantly, KLRG1+ TCR-tg effector/memory cells could efficiently lyse target cells and secrete cytokines, but were severely impaired in their ability to proliferate after Ag stimulation. Thus, this study demonstrates that senescent CD8 T cells are induced in abundant numbers during viral infections in vivo.

Induction of neonatal immune responses to vaccine antigens is believed to be of limited efficacy because of immune immaturity and particular susceptibility to tolerogenic signals during this period of life. To characterize particular features of neonatal immune responses to vaccine antigens, we assessed the capacity of BALB/c mice at different stages of immunological maturation to respond to a selection of vaccine antigens and presentation systems. Significant B and T cell responses to vaccine antigens (tetanus and measles virus peptides, tetanus toxoid, live viral attenuated measles virus, canarypox recombinant measles vector or bacillus Calmette-Guérin) were obtained as early as the first week of life. However, these neonatal responses differed qualitatively from adult responses by a decreased IgG2a/IgG1 ratio of vaccine-specific antibodies, the secretion of significantly higher interleukin-5 and lower interferon-gamma levels by vaccine-specific T cells and an impaired induction of cytotoxic T cell precursors. This pattern of biased Th2 versus Th1 responses induced upon early exposure to vaccines was not reversed by decreasing the doses of vaccine antigens. It did not disappear with aging and was still reflected in adult responses to booster immunization with the corresponding antigen. Thus, neonatal immunization can induce significant vaccine specific responses with a predominance of a Th2 pattern which can persist in boosted adult mice.

The putative counterparts of human plasmacytoid pre-dendritic cells (pDCs) have been described in vivo in mouse models and very recently in an in vitro culture system. In this study, we report that large numbers of bone marrow-derived murine CD11c+B220+ pDCs can be generated with Flt3 ligand (FL) as the sole exogenous differentiation/growth factor and that pDC generation is regulated in vivo by FL because FL-deficient mice showed a major reduction in splenic pDC numbers. We extensively analyzed bone marrow-derived CD11c+B220+ pDCs and described their immature APC phenotype based on MHC class II, activation markers, and chemokine receptor level of expression. CD11c+B220+ pDCs showed a nonoverlapping Toll-like receptor pattern of expression distinct from that of classical CD11c+B220− dendritic cells and were poor T cell stimulators. Stimulation of CD11c+B220+ pDCs with oligodeoxynucleotides containing certain CpG motifs plus CD40 ligand plus GM-CSF led to increased MHC class II, CD80, CD86, and CD8α expression levels, to a switch in chemokine receptor expression that affected their migration, to IFN-α and IL-12 secretion, and to the acquisition of priming capacities for both CD4+ and CD8+ OVA-specific TCR-transgenic naive T cells. Thus, the in vitro generation of murine pDCs may serve as a useful tool to further investigate pDC biology as well as the potential role of these cells in viral immunity and other settings.

Ag-experienced or memory T cells have increased reactivity to recall Ag, and can be distinguished from naive T cells by altered expression of surface markers such as CD44. Memory T cells have a high turnover rate, and CD8+ memory T cells proliferate upon viral infection, in the presence of IFN-αβ and/or IL-15. In this study, we extend these findings by showing that activated NKT cells and superantigen-activated T cells induce extensive bystander proliferation of both CD8+ and CD4+ memory T cells. Moreover, proliferation of memory T cells can be induced by an IFN-αβ-independent, but IFN-γ- or IL-12-dependent pathway. In these conditions of bystander activation, proliferating memory (CD44high) T cells do not derive from activation of naive (CD44low) T cells, but rather from bona fide memory CD44high T cells. Together, these data demonstrate that distinct pathways can induce bystander proliferation of memory T cells.

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Inhibitory MHC receptors determine the reactivity and specificity of NK cells. These receptors can also regulate T cells by modulating TCR-induced effector functions such as cytotoxicity, cytokine production, and proliferation. Here we have assessed the capacity of mouse T cells expressing the inhibitory MHC class I receptor Ly49A to respond to a well-defined tumor Ag in vivo using Ly49A transgenic mice. We find that the presence of Ly49A on the vast majority of lymphocytes prevents the development of a significant Ag-specific CD8+ T cell response and, consequently, the rejection of the tumor. Despite minor alterations in the TCR repertoire of CD8+ T cells in the transgenic lines, precursors of functional tumor-specific CD8+ T cells exist but could not be activated most likely due to a lack of appropriate CD4+ T cell help. Surprisingly, all of these effects are observed in the absence of a known ligand for the Ly49A receptor as defined by its ability to regulate NK cell function. Indeed, we found that the above effects on T cells may be based on a weak interaction of Ly49A with Kb or Db class I molecules. Thus, our data demonstrate that enforced expression of a Ly49A receptor on conventional T cells prevents a specific immune response in vivo and suggest that the functions of T and NK cells are differentially sensitive to the presence of inhibitory MHC class I receptors.

The CD8+-T-cell response to Moloney murine leukemia virus (M-MuLV)-associated antigens in C57BL/6 mice is directed against an immunodominant gag-encoded epitope (CCLCLTVFL) presented in the context of H-2Db and is restricted primarily to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) expressing the Vα3.2 and Vβ5.2 gene segments. We decided to examine the M-MuLV response in congenic C57BL/6 Vβ a mice which are unable to express the dominant Vα3.2+ Vβ5.2+ T-cell receptor (TCR) due to a large deletion at the TCR locus that includes the Vβ5.2 gene segment. Interestingly, M-MuLV-immune C57BL/6 Vβ a mice were still able to reject M-MuLV-infected tumor cells and direct ex vivo analysis of peripheral blood lymphocytes from these immune mice revealed a dramatic increase in CD8+ cells utilizing the same Vα3.2 gene segment in association with two different Vβ segments (Vβ3 and Vβ17). Surprisingly, all these CTL recognized the same immunodominant M-MuLVgag epitope. Analysis of the TCR repertoire of individual M-MuLV-immune (C57BL/6 × C57BL/6 Vβ a )F1 mice revealed a clear hierarchy in Vβ utilization, with a preferential usage of the Vβ17 gene segment, whereas Vβ3 and especially Vβ5.2 were used to much lesser extents. Sequencing of TCRα- and -β-chain junctional regions of CTL clones specific for the M-MuLV gag epitope revealed a diverse repertoire of TCRβ chains in Vβ a mice and a highly restricted TCRβ-chain repertoire in Vβ b mice, whereas TCRα-chain sequences were highly conserved in both cases. Collectively, our data indicate that the H-2Db -restricted M-MuLV gagepitope can be recognized in a hierarchal fashion by different Vβ domains and that the degree of β-chain diversity varies according to Vβ utilization.