In this study, alkali modified coal fly ash (MFA) and unmodified coal fly ash (unMFA) were applied, as pit latrine additives to eliminate faecal coliforms from synthetic faeces (SF), which were used as a proxy for real pit latrine waste. The X-ray diffractogram spectrum showed that mullite and quartz were converted into hydroxysilicate. Two separate studies were run over a period of seven weeks. The first study had the treatment combinations of SF: MFA, SF: unMFA, SF: MFA: synthetic greywater (SGW), SF: unMFA: SGW, SF: MFA: synthetic urine (SU), SF: unMFA: SU and SF (as a control) while the second study consisted of the combinations of SF: MFA, SF: unMFA, SF: MFA: lime (6g), SF: unMFA: lime (12g), SF: MFA: lime (24g), SF: unMFA: lime (50g) respectively. The pH in both studies ranged between 7.07 and 12.38. The average initial concentrations of faecal coliforms from each of the experimental treatments ranged from 9.96 x 106 to 1.06 x107 ± 2 x106 cfu/g of dry weight on the first day of the experiment. However, they were removed completely after 7 days with no regrowth for a period of 7 weeks indicating removal of faecal coliforms to level below the detection limits of the enumeration technique used. On the first study on the fourth week, faecal coliforms reappeared in the pit latrine treatment SF: MFA: SU (5.60 x 105 ± 8.66 x 105 cfu/g dry weight) followed by SF: MFA (1.78 x 105 ± 2.89 x 105 cfu/g dry weight) but thereafter could not be detected (detection limit was 545 cfu/ g dry weight of SF) for the remainder of the study. The concentration of chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonium, phosphate ranged between 6.35 x102 ± 1.26x102 – 22.11 x102, 0.116±0.091 – 21.38 x102 ± 1.77x102 and 1.35x102 ±0.348 – 31.18x102 ±0.348 mg/g of dry weight respectively while nitrate concentration was zero. In conclusion, both studies showed that MFA and unMFA can be used as pit latrine additives for the removal of pathogenic microorganisms, however, the contents of the pit latrine might have an influence on how fast and effective the additive might be as shown in the first study where SU or SGW were introduced.
Introduction: South Africa is a member state of the “BRICS” bloc (BRICS2017.org, 2017) and the G20 group of the 20 nations/economic blocs, which between them account for the majority of the world’s trade and economic activity. It faces many developmental challenges which are mirrored in its higher education sector. In this article, the authors seek to provide an overview of the challenges that South African higher education faces in the achievement of the developmental goals of the country. The focus of this paper is a case study in WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) to improve context-specific responses that trains pharmacists on knowledge and skills.Methods: The study was performed as a combination of calculations and a literature review to obtain the background or current status of the higher education sector and developmental planning in South Africa. For this, data were extracted from the Statistics South Africa reports, relevant professional articles on South African higher education sector and results of postgraduate research. Workshop results which were obtained as a collaboration between a public and a private higher education institution and results of postgraduate research were used as the paradigm for transformation and decolonisation of the curriculum for a professional degree in South Africa.Results and discussion: Challenges exist in the South African tertiary education sector and the graduation rate currently stands at 65.1% of the target set by the National Development Plan. Around 58.1% of all students do not complete their university/post-secondary education, which could provide a partial explanation for the skills shortage in South Africa. Decolonisation and transformation of the tertiary education curriculum are major topics in the discourse on higher education in South Africa. The authors propose that one way to achieve this would be inclusion of research results and group activities in the area of water, sanitation and hygiene as a topic for possible and partial transformation of the Bachelor of Pharmacy curriculum.Conclusions: The current article summarises some of topics and challenges that drive the current discourse, developmental and curriculum debate in higher education in South Africa. Student access and through put at tertiary institutions need to be improved and the curriculum needs to be transformed.
The current paper provides a review and meta-analysis of the practical implications of disaster risk management related to the ventilated improved latrines in South Africa. This technology is evaluated through its legacy and novel challenges of disaster risk reduction. In the current article, the methodology adopted was a literature review and meta-analyses. The results indicate that the in-situ treatment and breakdown of faecal sludge in the ventilated improved pit latrines is not always taking place and that anaerobic digestion might not always be feasible. New strategies are proposed to manage the sanitation-related risks in South Africa by specifying more exact dimensions for the newly built ventilated improved pit latrines by suggesting the use of novel sanitation additives such as fly ash to enhance on-site and in situ treatment, as well as ex situ treatment of the pit latrine faecal sludge. Regular maintenance can lead to prevention of the dysfunctional character of the ventilated improved pit latrines as a functional sanitation technology and a user-friendly hygiene barrier to the spread of sanitation/WASH-related epidemics or infectious diseases. The implementation of the novel strategies should be enhanced by the application of the (Environmental) Technology Assessment in sanitation service delivery in South Africa.
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