Effects of negative input for 13 categories of grammatical error were assessed in a longitudinal study of naturalistic adult–child discourse. Two-hour samples of conversational interaction were obtained at two points in time, separated by a lag of 12 weeks, for 12 children (mean age 2;0 at the start). The data were interpreted within the framework offered by Saxton's (1997, 2000) contrast theory of negative input. Corrective input was associated with subsequent improvements in the grammaticality of child speech for three of the target structures. No effects were found for two forms of positive input: non-contingent models, where the adult produces target structures in non-error-contingent contexts; and contingent models, where grammatical forms follow grammatical child usages. The findings lend support to the view that, in some cases at least, the structure of adult–child discourse yields information on the bounds of grammaticality for the language-learning child.
Like distinctive features, elements identify natural classes and model the structure of segments. But unlike features, they combine asymmetrically in expressions, with head-dependent relations between elements making a significant contribution to the expressive power of representations. Most versions of Element Theory follow the general principle that a structural domain-such as a segmental expression-can have just one head element. In Backley (2011), however, element structures are permitted to have two heads. Multiple headedness is a consequence of allowing dual interpretation, where each element has two different phonetic realisations depending on its head or non-head status. While dual interpretation is better equipped to capture natural classes and explain phonological processes, its by-product is the need for double-headed expressions, which present a challenge to element-based theory. It is proposed that the six elements (|I|, |U|, |A|, |H|, |L|, |ʔ|) naturally form three pairs of opposing (dark vs light) values, each pair being associated with one of three fundamentals of spoken language: colour, resonance, frequency. It is then argued that headedness relations refer separately to each fundamental property. So, if there are three fundamentals in a melodic structure, then there is the potential for up to three heads in any one expression. The implications of this approach are considered with regard to segmental markedness and language typology.
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