Amphibian pathogens are of current interest as contributors to the global decline of amphibians. However, compared with chytrid fungi and ranaviruses, herpesviruses have received relatively little attention. Two ranid herpesviruses have been described: namely, Ranid herpesvirus 1 (RHV1) and Ranid herpesvirus 2 (RHV2). This article describes the discovery and partial characterization of a novel virus tentatively named Ranid herpesvirus 3 (RHV3), a candidate member of the genus Batrachovirus in the family Alloherpesviridae. RHV3 infection in wild common frogs (Rana temporaria) was associated with severe multifocal epidermal hyperplasia, dermal edema, a minor inflammatory response, and variable mucous gland degeneration. Intranuclear inclusions were numerous in the affected epidermis together with unique extracellular aggregates of herpesvirus-like particles. The RHV3-associated skin disease has features similar to those of a condition recognized in European frogs for the last 20 years and whose cause has remained elusive. The genome of RHV3 shares most of the features of the Alloherpesviruses. The characterization of this presumptive pathogen may be of value for amphibian conservation and for a better understanding of the biology of Alloherpesviruses.

Here we report the discovery and partial characterization of a novel herpesvirus tentatively named Bufonid herpesvirus 1 (BfHV1) from severe dermatitis in free ranging common toads (Bufo bufo) in Switzerland. The disease has been observed in toads every year since 2014, in spring, during the mating season, at different and distant locations. The virus is found in the skin and occasionally in the brain of infected toads. The genome of the virus is at least 158 Kb long and contains at least 152 open reading frames with a minimal length of 270 nt. The genome of BfHV1 contains all the signature genes that are present in alloherpesviruses. Phylogenetic analysis based on the amino acid sequence of the DNA polymerase and terminase proteins positions the novel virus among the members of the genus Batrachovirus, family Alloherpesviridae. This is the first herpesvirus ever characterized in common toads.

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is an endemic zoonosis in Morocco caused by Mycobacterium bovis, which infects many domestic animals and is transmitted to humans through consumption of raw milk or from contact with infected animals. The prevalence of BTB in Moroccan cattle is estimated at 18%, and 33% at the individual and the herd level respectively, but the human M. bovis burden needs further clarification. The current control strategy based on test and slaughter should be improved through local context adaptation taking into account a suitable compensation in order to reduce BTB prevalence in Morocco and decrease the disease burden in humans and animals. We established a simple compartmental deterministic mathematical model for BTB transmission in cattle and humans to provide a general understanding of BTB, in particular regarding transmission to humans. Differential equations were used to model the different pathways between the compartments for cattle and humans. Scenarios of test and slaughter were simulated to determine the effects of varying the proportion of tested animals (p) on the time to elimination of BTB (individual animal prevalence of less than one in a thousand) in cattle and humans. The time to freedom from disease ranged from 75 years for p = 20% to 12 years for p = 100%. For p > 60% the time to elimination was less than 20 years. The cumulated cost was largely stable: for p values higher than 40%, cost ranged from 1.47 to 1.60 billion euros with a time frame of 12 to 32 years to reach freedom from disease. The model simulations also suggest that using a 2mm cut off instead of a 4mm cut off in the Single Intradermal Comparative Cervical Tuberculin skin test (SICCT) would result in cheaper and quicker elimination programs. This analysis informs Moroccan bovine tuberculosis control policy regarding time frame, range of cost and levels of intervention. However, further research is needed to clarify the national human-bovine tuberculosis ratio in Morocco.

A comparative study was carried out on common and agile frogs ( Rana temporaria and R. dalmatina) naturally infected with ranid herpesvirus 3 (RaHV3) and common toads ( Bufo bufo) naturally infected with bufonid herpesvirus 1 (BfHV1) to investigate common pathogenetic pathways and molecular mechanisms based on macroscopic, microscopic, and ultrastructural pathology as well as evaluation of gene expression. Careful examination of the tissue changes, supported by in situ hybridization, at different stages of development in 6 frogs and 14 toads revealed that the skin lesions are likely transient, and part of a tissue cycle necessary for viral replication in the infected hosts. Transcriptomic analysis, carried out on 2 naturally infected and 2 naïve common frogs ( Rana temporaria) and 2 naturally infected and 2 naïve common toads ( Bufo bufo), revealed altered expression of genes involved in signaling and cell remodeling in diseased animals. Finally, virus transcriptomics revealed that both RaHV3 and BfHV1 had relatively high expression of a putative immunomodulating gene predicted to encode a decoy receptor for tumor necrosis factor in the skin of the infected hosts. Thus, the comparable lesions in infected frogs and toads appear to reflect a concerted epidermal and viral cycle, with presumptive involvement of signaling and gene remodeling host and immunomodulatory viral genes.