Virtually all land mammals and birds have two sleep states: slow-wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep [1, 2]. After deprivation of REM sleep by repeated awakenings, mammals increase REM sleep time [3], supporting the idea that REM sleep is homeostatically regulated. Some evidence suggests that periods of REM sleep deprivation for a week or more cause physiological dysfunction and eventual death [4, 5]. However, separating the effects of REM sleep loss from the stress of repeated awakening is difficult [2, 6]. The northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) is a semiaquatic mammal [7]. It can sleep on land and in seawater. The fur seal is unique in showing both the bilateral SWS seen in most mammals and the asymmetric sleep previously reported in cetaceans [8]. Here we show that when the fur seal stays in seawater, where it spends most of its life [7], it goes without or greatly reduces REM sleep for days or weeks. After this nearly complete elimination of REM, it displays minimal or no REM rebound upon returning to baseline conditions. Our data are consistent with the hypothesis that REM sleep may serve to reverse the reduced brain temperature and metabolism effects of bilateral nonREM sleep, a state that is greatly reduced when the fur seal is in the seawater, rather than REM sleep being directly homeostatically regulated. This can explain the absence of REM sleep in the dolphin and other cetaceans and its increasing proportion as the end of the sleep period approaches in humans and other mammals.

SUMMARY The fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus), a member of the Pinniped family, displays a highly expressed electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry during slow wave sleep (SWS), which is comparable with the unihemispheric sleep in cetaceans. In this study, we investigated the EEG asymmetry in the fur seal using spectral analysis. Four young (2-3 years old) seals were implanted with EEG electrodes for polygraphic sleep recording.In each animal, EEG spectral power in the frequency range of 1.2-16 Hz was computed in symmetrical cortical recordings over two consecutive nights. The degree of EEG asymmetry was measured by using thewhere L and R are the spectral powers in the left and right hemispheres, respectively]. In fur seals, EEG asymmetry, as measured by the percent of 20-s epochs with absolute AI > 0.3 and >0.6, was expressed in the entire frequency range (1.2-16 Hz). The asymmetry was significantly greater during SWS (25.6-44.2% of all SWS epochs had an absolute AI > 0.3 and 2.1-12.2% of all epochs had AI > 0.6) than during quiet waking (11.0-20.3% and 0-1.9% of all waking epochs, respectively) and REM sleep (4.2-8.9% of all REM sleep epochs and no epochs, respectively). EEG asymmetry was recorded during both low-and high-voltage SWS, and was maximal in the range of 1.2-4 and 12-16 Hz. As shown in this study, the degree of EEG asymmetry and the frequency range in which it is expressed during SWS in fur seals are profoundly different from those of terrestrial mammals and birds.

Fur seals are unique in that they display both bilateral slow-wave sleep (BSWS), as seen in all terrestrial mammals, and slow-wave sleep with interhemispheric electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry, resembling the unihemispheric slow waves of cetaceans. Little is known about the underlying mechanisms of this phenomenon, which is also termed asymmetrical slow wave sleep (ASWS). However, we may begin to understand the expression of ASWS by studying the neurotransmitter systems thought to be involved in the generation and maintenance of sleep-wake states in terrestrial mammals. We examined bilaterally the release of cortical acetylcholine (ACh), a neurotransmitter implicated in the regulation of cortical EEG and behavioral arousal, across the sleep-wake cycle in four juvenile northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus). In vivo microdialysis and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrochemical detection were used to measure cortical ACh levels during polygraphically defined behavioral states. Cortical ACh release was state-dependent, showing maximal release during active waking (AW), similar levels during quiet waking (QW), and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and minimal release during BSWS. When compared with BSWS, cortical ACh levels increased ϳ300% during AW, and ϳ200% during QW and REM sleep. During these bilaterally symmetrical EEG states, ACh was synchronously released from both hemispheres. However, during ASWS, ACh release was lateralized with greater release in the hemisphere displaying lower voltage activity, at levels approximating those seen in QW. These findings demonstrate that cortical ACh release is tightly linked to hemispheric EEG activation.

No abstract

Adult dolphins are capable of sleeping with one eye open and exhibiting slow wave activity in the electroencephalogram (EEG) of one hemisphere at a time. The aim of this study was to examine the postpartum sleep behavior of bottlenose dolphin calves and their mothers. The behavior of three dolphin mother-calf pairs was monitored from birth to 13 months postpartum. Dolphin mothers and their calves exhibited a complete disappearance of rest at the surface for a minimum of 2 months postpartum, swimming in echelon formation on average in 97-100% of the observation time. Calves surfaced to breathe more often than their mothers between the postpartum age of 2 and 8 weeks. During the first postpartum month two dolphin mothers surfaced with both eyes open on average in 93 and 98% of the time while in their calves both eyes were open in 90 and 60% of the cases. In calves, the eye directed toward the mother was open more often (on average in 95% of all observations in calf 1 and 99% in calf 2) than the eye directed to the opposite side (82% in calf 1 and 60% in calf 2). Our data indicate that dolphin mothers and calves are highly active and vigilant during the initial period of the calf's life, continuously monitoring their position relative to each other by sight during wakefulness and sleep. We hypothesize that episodes of EEG slow wave activity at this time are likely to be brief, fragmenting EEG defined sleep into short episodes.

Several behavioral and physiological adaptations have been developed in evolution of Pinnipeds allowing them to sleep both on land and in water. To date sleep has been examined in detail in eared and true seals (the families of Otariidae and Phocidae). The aim of this study was to examine sleep in another semiaquatic mammal - the walrus, which is the only extant representative of the family Odobenidae. Slow wave and paradoxical sleep (SWS and PS) in the examined walrus (2 year old female, weight 130 kg) averaged 19.4 ± 2.0 and 6.9 ± 1.1% of 24-h when on land, and 20.5 ± 0.8% of 24-h and 1.1 ± 0.6% when in water, respectively. The average duration of PS episode was 6.4 ± 0.6 min (maximum 23 min) when on land and 1.8 ± 0.1 min (maximum 3.3 min) when in water. In water, sleep occurred predominantly while the walrus submerged and lay on the bottom of the pool (89% of total sleep time). The walrus usually woke up while emerging to the surface for breathing. Most often EEG slow waves developed synchronously in both cortical hemispheres (90% of SWS time when on land and 97% when in water). Short episodes of interhemispheric EEG asymmetry usually coincided with brief opening of one eye. The pattern of sleep in the walrus was similar to the pattern of sleep in the Otariidae seals while on land (predominantly bilateral SWS, accompanied by regular breathing) and to the pattern of sleep in the Phocidae while in water (sleep during apneas both in depth and at the surface, interrupted by brief arousal when emerging for breathing).

A commentary on this article appears in this issue on page 491.

On land, fur seals predominately display bilaterally synchronized electroencephalogram (EEG) activity during slow-wave sleep (SWS), similar to that observed in all terrestrial mammals. In water, however, fur seals exhibit asymmetric slow-wave sleep (ASWS), resembling the unihemispheric slow-wave sleep of odontocetes (toothed whales). The unique sleeping pattern of fur seals allows us to distinguish neuronal mechanisms mediating EEG changes from those mediating behavioral quiescence. In a prior study we found that cortical acetylcholine release is lateralized during ASWS in the northern fur seal, with greater release in the hemisphere displaying low-voltage (waking) EEG activity, linking acetylcholine release to hemispheric EEG activation (Lapierre et al. 2007). In contrast to acetylcholine, we now report that cortical serotonin release is not lateralized during ASWS. Our data demonstrate that bilaterally symmetric levels of serotonin are compatible with interhemispheric EEG asymmetry in the fur seal. We also find greatly elevated levels during eating and hosing the animals with water, suggesting that serotonin is more closely linked to bilateral variables, such as axial motor and autonomic control, than to the lateralized cortical activation manifested in asymmetrical sleep.