Shift systems are known to be associated with a variety of psychosocial and physiological problems that can affect the health of workers. This review focuses on measures that can be taken to optimize the well-being of shift workers and to identify ill-health at an early stage. The discussion includes specific aspects of the design of shift systems, taking account of variation in the views and circumstances of employees, and strategies to combat sleepiness at work and elsewhere. Although an ideal shift system does not exist, a wholistic approach comprising education of managers, employees and their families can ameliorate some of the health consequences.

All shift systems have advantages and drawbacks. There is no single 'optimum shift system' which can be used in industry or commerce at all work places. However, there are shift systems which are more favourable, and others which are less favourable, in the context of physiological, psychological, and social recommendations for the design of shift systems. This article discusses the following recommendations: (1) Nightwork should be reduced as much as possible. If this is not possible, quickly rotating shift systems are preferable to slowly rotating ones. Permanent nightwork does not seem to be advisable for the majority of shiftworkers. (2) Extended workdays (9-12 h) should only be contemplated, if the nature of work and the workload are suitable; the shift system is designed to minimize the accumulation of fatigue; there are adequate arrangements for cover of absentees; overtime will not be added; toxic exposure is limited; and if it is likely that a complete recovery after work and a high acceptance of the working time arrangement are possible. (3) An early start for the morning shift should be avoided. In all shiftsystems flexible working time arrangements are realizable. The highest flexibility is possible in 'time autonomous groups'. (4) Quick changeovers (e.g., from night to afternoon shift at the same day or from afternoon to morning shift) must be avoided. The number of consecutive working days should be limited to 5-7 days. Every shift system should include some free weekends with at least two successive full days off. (5) The forward rotation of shifts (phase delay, clockwise rotation) would seem to be recommendable at least in continuous shift systems. Besides the design of a shift system, implementation strategy is of particular importance for the acceptance of the shift system.

A literature review of 105 studies on the effects of extended daily working hours was conducted. Potential negative effects of extended working hours are discussed: More accidents on the job; more accidents off the job; reduced duration and quality of sleep due to moonlighting; sleepiness; reduced alertness; fatigue; adverse effects on performance; prolonged toxic exposure; adverse effects on health; increased absenteeism; problems communicating with managers; and problems while driving home. Potential positive effects of extended working hours are discussed: Less travel time and costs; more time for the family, social life, and domestic duties; increased satisfaction with working hours; fewer handovers; and less overtime. No firm conclusions can be drawn because of the partly contradictory results and the methodological problems of many studies. However, caution is advised when considering the introduction of extended work shifts, particularly where public safety is at stake. A checklist is provided (concerning work load, breaks, staffing level, systematic assessments of health and safety factors) to support decisions for or against the use of extended work shifts.

This article explores the employability of information and communication technology (ICT) professionals from the perspective of small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The first stage of analysis, based on over 100 interviews with managers of ICT supplier companies in seven European countries (Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland and the UK), showed most SMEs to have a generally ad hoc approach to managing the employability of their ICT professionals. Assessment and development plans were used primarily to keep skills current to business needs; however, the more developed northern European markets showed greater awareness of the 'high commitment' benefits of a more sophisticated approach towards career management (e.g. through mentoring or career planning). A second stage of analysis based only on UK interviews builds on this to propose a model of positive employer influence on psychological contracts through career and employability management practices

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3 (1977) 165-182. A survey of the different types of shift-work systems in use, and the incidence of shift work in different industries and countries, is followed by a discussion of (a) the effects of shift work on health and (b) the physiological problems raised by the phase-shifting of the circadian cycle in night workers. Summaries of the existing knowledge of the effects of shift work on performance efficiency, accidents, and family and social life are then given, and a set of criteria for designing optimal shift systems is proposed. Next, the questions of selection for shift work and the provision of health services for shiftworkers are discussed. Finally, the need for further research on the problems of shift work is explained, and suggestions are offered on the lines such research should follow.Key words: accidents, attitudes, circadian r'hythms, gastrointestinal disease, interpersonal relationships, performance efficiency, personnel selection, psychosocial factors, shift work, sleep.The literature on shift work is ,considerable. Most of the available reports ,concern a particula'r approach to the problem. However, a more general view is given in some recent publications (22, 52,68,73, 90), and several international symposia have been devoted to this subject (e.g., 24, 27, 93, 94). 'I1he present paper is a review of the most important and generally a,ccepted facts on shift work and its possible effects on health and related factors.Institute of Work Physiology at the Univel'sity of Dortmund, Federal Republic of Gel'many.