Why do you think it will rain tomorrow? Because, you say, it always rains this time of year; you can see dark clouds for miles; and besides, you read the weather report. The reasons you offer justify your belief; they comprise a justification for your prediction about the weather. Justifications are commonplace. Justifications involve reasons or evidence you often cite when asked how you know. Justifications support your ability to justify-to argue in favour of-your belief, to show that your belief is (likely to be) true (Unger 1968; Audi 1988; Kornblith 2008). Justification is one kind of positive epistemic status or standing. Positive epistemic standings are goods, successes, fulfilments, or achievements understood in terms of promoting true belief and avoiding error (Alston 1985, 2005). Epistemic justification is not the only kind of positive epistemic standing. Perceptual beliefs paradigmatically enjoy positive epistemic status, but higher non-human animals, human infants, children, and ordinary adults often lack evidence or reasons in support of their perceptual beliefs, and even more often, if not always, lack the ability to cite evidence or reasons in support of their perceptual beliefs. Ask a small child why he believes the ball continues to exist as it passes behind the screen, and at best you'll get a gurgle or a burp. Ask a chimpanzee trying to open a crate why she believes there are bananas inside, and you won't get any answer at all. Well-formed, garden-variety perceptual beliefs enjoy positive epistemic status, but that status does not depend on reasons or evidence, and it especially does not depend on the subject's ability to offer reasons or evidence (Goldman 1979). I use the term 'warrant' for positive epistemic statuses that provide epistemic support or grounding in favour of holding the belief. Justifications are a familiar kind. Evidentialism arguably captures the contours of this kind of warrant. But justification is clearly not the only kind of warrant. I use 'entitlement' for positive epistemic support or grounds in favour of belief when the support or grounding
The issue of quality is now a significant theme in higher education management. This paper examines the issue of quality as determined by Australian and international students. A scale comprising 26 quality variables was developed, verified and tested on a cohort of 351 students. Four factors were found and used to test a series of hypotheses and research questions. Results indicated a hierarchy amongst the factors and that academic instruction was the most critical aspect. There were significant differences between international and Australian students' perceptions. It was also found that quality perceptions were stable over the years of study. The implications for university management are discussed.
SummaryThe population growth of Brown Kiwi Apteryx mantelli was measured under four different management regimes: unmanaged, predator trapping, predator poisoning, and Bank of New Zealand Operation Nest Eggä (BNZONE) -the removal of eggs for artificial incubation and return of resultant subadults to the wild. Life table analysis revealed that high adult mortality (7.3% per annum), caused mainly by domestic dog Canis familiaris and Ferret Mustela furo predation was the critical factor affecting Brown Kiwi populations in central Northland. The 13.8-year life expectancy of adults was only one-third of what can be expected in the absence of these two predators. Predation of Brown Kiwi chicks and juveniles (, 1 kg) by Stoats Mustela erminea and, to a lesser extent, domestic cats Felis catus, was also important. Unmanaged populations declined at 2.5% per annum. Trapping pests in a 200 ha area was largely ineffective, with the population declining by 1.7% per annum. Poisoning pests allowed Brown Kiwi populations to increase at 3.3% per annum. BNZONE proved to be by far the most effective tool, resulting in a 12.5% annual population increase, mainly due to 83% chick survival to six months old, compared with 10% survival in unmanaged sites. There were no observable behavioural problems associated with chicks being reared ex situ, but BNZONE was the most expensive tool and benefited only the Brown Kiwi. This study has helped to develop a range of tools that are now being used to facilitate recovery of populations of all four threatened species of kiwi in New Zealand, and the experimental approach used has wider application in management of other threatened species.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.