Uptake of external sulfate from the environment and use of internal vacuolar sulfate pools are two important aspects of the acquisition of sulfur for metabolism. In this study, we demonstrated that the vacuolar SULTR4-type sulfate transporter facilitates the efflux of sulfate from the vacuoles and plays critical roles in optimizing the internal distribution of sulfate in Arabidopsis thaliana. SULTR4;1-green fluorescent protein (GFP) and SULTR4;2-GFP fusion proteins were expressed under the control of their own promoters in transgenic Arabidopsis. The fusion proteins were accumulated specifically in the tonoplast membranes and were localized predominantly in the pericycle and xylem parenchyma cells of roots and hypocotyls. In roots, SULTR4;1 was constantly accumulated regardless of the changes of sulfur conditions, whereas SULTR4;2 became abundant by sulfur limitation. In shoots, both transporters were accumulated by sulfur limitation. Vacuoles isolated from callus of the sultr4;1 sultr4;2 double knockout showed excess accumulation of sulfate, which was substantially decreased by overexpression of SULTR4;1-GFP. In seedlings, the supplied [ 35 S]sulfate was retained in the root tissue of the sultr4;1 sultr4;2 double knockout mutant. Comparison of the double and single knockouts suggested that SULTR4;1 plays a major role and SULTR4;2 has a supplementary function. Overexpression of SULTR4;1-GFP significantly decreased accumulation of [ 35 S]sulfate in the root tissue, complementing the phenotype of the double mutant. These results suggested that SULTR4-type transporters, particularly SULTR4;1, actively mediate the efflux of sulfate from the vacuole lumen into the cytoplasm and influence the capacity for vacuolar storage of sulfate in the root tissue. The efflux function will promote rapid turnover of sulfate from the vacuoles particularly in the vasculature under conditions of lowsulfur supply, which will optimize the symplastic (cytoplasmic) flux of sulfate channeled toward the xylem vessels.

Demand-driven signaling will contribute to regulation of sulfur acquisition and distribution within the plant. To investigate the regulatory mechanisms pedospheric sulfate and atmospheric H 2 S supply were manipulated in Brassica oleracea. Sulfate deprivation of B. oleracea seedlings induced a rapid increase of the sulfate uptake capacity by the roots, accompanied by an increased expression of genes encoding specific sulfate transporters in roots and other plant parts. More prolonged sulfate deprivation resulted in an altered shoot-root partitioning of biomass in favor of the root. B. oleracea was able to utilize atmospheric H 2 S as S-source; however, root proliferation and increased sulfate transporter expression occurred as in S-deficient plants. It was evident that in B. oleracea there was a poor shoot to root signaling for the regulation of sulfate uptake and expression of the sulfate transporters. cDNAs corresponding to 12 different sulfate transporter genes representing the complete gene family were isolated from Brassica napus and B. oleracea species. The sequence analysis classified the Brassica sulfate transporter genes into four different groups. The expression of the different sulfate transporters showed a complex pattern of tissue specificity and regulation by sulfur nutritional status. The sulfate transporter genes of Groups 1, 2, and 4 were induced or up-regulated under sulfate deprivation, although the expression of Group 3 sulfate transporters was not affected by the sulfate status. The significance of sulfate, thiols, and O-acetylserine as possible signal compounds in the regulation of the sulfate uptake and expression of the transporter genes is evaluated.

Molybdenum (Mo) is an essential micronutrient for plants, serving as a cofactor for enzymes involved in nitrate assimilation, sulfite detoxification, abscisic acid biosynthesis, and purine degradation. Here we show that natural variation in shoot Mo content across 92 Arabidopsis thaliana accessions is controlled by variation in a mitochondrially localized transporter (Molybdenum Transporter 1 - MOT1) that belongs to the sulfate transporter superfamily. A deletion in the MOT1 promoter is strongly associated with low shoot Mo, occurring in seven of the accessions with the lowest shoot content of Mo. Consistent with the low Mo phenotype, MOT1 expression in low Mo accessions is reduced. Reciprocal grafting experiments demonstrate that the roots of Ler-0 are responsible for the low Mo accumulation in shoot, and GUS localization demonstrates that MOT1 is expressed strongly in the roots. MOT1 contains an N-terminal mitochondrial targeting sequence and expression of MOT1 tagged with GFP in protoplasts and transgenic plants, establishing the mitochondrial localization of this protein. Furthermore, expression of MOT1 specifically enhances Mo accumulation in yeast by 5-fold, consistent with MOT1 functioning as a molybdate transporter. This work provides the first molecular insight into the processes that regulate Mo accumulation in plants and shows that novel loci can be detected by association mapping.

Proton/sulphate co-transport in the plasma membrane of root cells is the first step for the uptake of sulphate from the environment by plants. Further intracellular, cell-to-cell and long-distance transport must fulfil the requirements for sulphate assimilation and source/sink demands within the plant. A gene family of sulphate transporters, which may be subdivided into five groups, has been identified with examples from many different plant species. For at least two groups, proton/sulphate co-transport activity has been confirmed. It appears that each group represents sulphate transporters with distinct kinetic properties, patterns of expression, and cell/tissue specificity related to specific roles in the uptake and allocation of sulphate. High-affinity sulphate uptake and low-affinity vascular transport, as well as vacuolar efflux, are controlled by the nutritional status of the plant. Most notably there is an apparent increase in capacity for cellular sulphate uptake and vacuolar efflux when sulphur supply is limiting. Within the groups, the individual sulphate transporters may be further subdivided by differences in temporal, cellular and tissue expression. Many of the transporters are regulated by the nutritional status of the individual tissues, to optimize sulphate movement within and between sink and source organs.

We have studied the molecular physiology of photosynthate unloading and partitioning during seed development of fava bean (Vicia faba). During the prestorage phase, high levels of hexoses in the cotyledons and the apoplastic endospermal space are correlated with activity of cell wall-bound invertase in the seed coat. Three cDNAs were cloned. Sequence comparison revealed genes putatively encoding one soluble and two cell wall-bound isoforms of invertase. Expression was studied in different organs and tissues of developing seeds by RNA gel analysis, in situ hybridization, enzyme assay, and enzyme activity staining. One extracellular invertase gene is expressed during the prestorage phase in the thin-walled parenchyma of the seed coat, a region known to be the site of photoassimilate unloading. We propose a model for an invertase-mediated unloading process during early seed development and the regulation of cotyledonary sucrose metabolism. After unloading from the seed coat, sucrose is hydrolyzed by cell wall-bound invertases. Thus, invertase contributes to establish sink strength in young seeds. The resultant hexoses are loaded into the cotyledons and control carbohydrate partitioning via an influence on the sucrose synthase/sucrose-phosphate synthase pathway. The developmentally regulated degradation of the thin-walled parenchyma expressing the invertase apparently initiates the storage phase. This is characterized by a switch to a low sucrose/hexoses ratio. Feeding hexoses to storage-phase cotyledons in vitro increases the sucrose-phosphate synthase/sucrose synthase ratio and changes carbohydrate partitioning in favor of sucrose. Concomitantly, the transcript level of the major storage product legumin B is downregulated.

SummaryUnderstanding the molecular basis of zinc (Zn) uptake and transport in staple cereal crops is critical for improving both Zn content and tolerance to low‐Zn soils. This study demonstrates the importance of group F bZIP transcription factors and ZIP transporters in responses to Zn deficiency in wheat (Triticum aestivum). Seven group F TabZIP genes and 14 ZIPs with homeologs were identified in hexaploid wheat. Promoter analysis revealed the presence of Zn‐deficiency‐response elements (ZDREs) in a number of the ZIPs. Functional complementation of the zrt1/zrt2 yeast mutant by TaZIP3, ‐6, ‐7, ‐9 and ‐13 supported an ability to transport Zn. Group F TabZIPs contain the group‐defining cysteine–histidine‐rich motifs, which are the predicted binding site of Zn2+ in the Zn‐deficiency response. Conservation of these motifs varied between the TabZIPs suggesting that individual TabZIPs may have specific roles in the wheat Zn‐homeostatic network. Increased expression in response to low Zn levels was observed for several of the wheat ZIPs and bZIPs; this varied temporally and spatially suggesting specific functions in the response mechanism. The ability of the group F TabZIPs to bind to specific ZDREs in the promoters of TaZIPs indicates a conserved mechanism in monocots and dicots in responding to Zn deficiency. In support of this, TabZIPF1‐7DL and TabZIPF4‐7AL afforded a strong level of rescue to the Arabidopsis hypersensitive bzip19 bzip23 double mutant under Zn deficiency. These results provide a greater understanding of Zn‐homeostatic mechanisms in wheat, demonstrating an expanded repertoire of group F bZIP transcription factors, adding to the complexity of Zn homeostasis.

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Interactions between sulfur (S) nutritional status and sulfate transporter expression in field-grown wheat (Triticum aestivum) were investigated using Broadbalk +S and 2S treatments (S fertilizer withheld) at Rothamsted, United Kingdom. In 2008, S, sulfate, selenium (Se), and molybdenum (Mo) concentrations and sulfate transporter gene expression were analyzed throughout development. Total S concentrations were lower in all tissues of 2S plants, principally as a result of decreased sulfate pools. S, Se, and Mo concentrations increased in vegetative tissues until anthesis, and thereafter, with the exception of Mo, decreased until maturity. At maturity, most of the S and Se were localized in the grain, indicating efficient remobilization from vegetative tissues, whereas less Mo was remobilized. At maturity, Se and Mo were enhanced 7-and 3.7-fold, respectively, in 2S compared with +S grain, while grain total S was not significantly reduced. Enhanced expression of sulfate transporters, for example Sultr1;1 and Sultr4;1, in 2S plants explains the much increased accumulation of Se and Mo (7-and 3.7-fold compared with +S in grain, respectively). Sultr5;2 (mot1), thought to be involved in Mo accumulation in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), did not fully explain patterns of Mo distribution; it was expressed in all tissues, decreasing in leaf and increasing in roots under 2S conditions, and was expressed in florets at anthesis but not in grain at any other time. In conclusion, S fertilizer application has a marked impact on Mo and Se distribution and accumulation, which is at least partially a result of altered gene expression of the sulfate transporter family.