Fetal plasma IL-6 concentration is significantly associated with the presence of inflammatory lesions in the extraplacental membranes and umbilical cord. Fetuses with fetal plasma IL-6 > 11 pg/ml had a significantly higher rate of funisitis and/or chorionic vasculitis than fetuses with fetal plasma IL-6 < 11 pg/ml. These findings suggest that funisitis/chorionic vasculitis is the histological manifestation of the fetal inflammatory response syndrome.

BACKGROUND: The human placenta has been traditionally viewed as sterile, and microbial invasion of this organ has been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Yet, recent studies that utilized sequencing techniques reported that the human placenta at term contains a unique microbiota. These conclusions are largely based on the results derived from the sequencing of placental samples. However, such an approach carries the risk of capturing background-contaminating DNA (from DNA extraction kits, polymerase chain reaction reagents, and laboratory environments) when low microbial biomass samples are studied. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the human placenta delivered at term in patients without labor who undergo cesarean delivery harbors a resident microbiota ("the assemblage of microorganisms present in a defined niche or environment"). STUDY DESIGN: This cross-sectional study included placentas from 29 women who had a cesarean delivery without labor at term. The study also included technical controls to account for potential backgroundcontaminating DNA, inclusive in DNA extraction kits, polymerase chain reaction reagents, and laboratory environments. Bacterial profiles of placental tissues and background technical controls were characterized and compared with the use of bacterial culture, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing, and metagenomic surveys. RESULTS: (1) Twenty-eight of 29 placental tissues had a negative culture for microorganisms. The microorganisms retrieved by culture from the remaining sample were likely contaminants because corresponding 16S ribosomal RNA genes were not detected in the same sample.(2) Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction did not

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Metformin is everywhere. Originally introduced in clinical practice as an anti-diabetic agent, its role as a therapeutic agent is expanding to include treatment of pre-diabetes, gestational diabetes, polycystic ovarian disease, and more recently, experimental studies, as well as observations in randomized clinical trials, suggest that metformin could have a place in the treatment or prevention of preeclampsia. This article provides a brief overview of the history of metformin in the treatment of diabetes, reviews the results of meta-analyses of metformin in gestational diabetes, and the treatment of obese non-diabetic pregnant women to prevent macrosomia. We highlight the results of a randomized clinical trial in which metformin administration in early pregnancy did not reduce the frequency of large-for-gestational-age infants (primary endpoint), but did decrease the frequency of preeclampsia (a secondary endpoint). The mechanisms by which metformin may prevent preeclampsia include a reduction in the production of anti-angiogenic factors (soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 and soluble endoglin), and improving endothelial dysfunction, probably through an effect on the mitochondria. Another potential mechanism whereby metformin may play a role in the prevention of preeclampsia is its ability to modify cellular homeostasis and energy disposition, mediated by mTOR. Metformin has a molecular weight of 129 Dalton, and therefore, readily crosses the placenta. There is considerable evidence suggesting that this agent is safe during pregnancy. New literature on the role of metformin in the prevention of cancer, a chemotherapeutic adjuvant, and in prolonging life and protecting against aging, is briefly reviewed. Herein we discuss the mechanisms of action and potential benefits of metformin.

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Recent molecular studies concluded that the endometrium has a resident microbiota dominated by Lactobacillus spp. and is therefore similar to that of the vagina. These findings were largely derived from endometrial samples obtained through a transcervical catheter and thus prone to contamination. Herein, we investigated the molecular microbial profiles of mid-endometrial samples obtained through hysterectomy and compared them with those of the cervix, vagina, rectum, oral cavity, and controls for background DNA contamination. Microbial profiles were examined through 16S rRNA gene qPCR and sequencing. Universal bacterial qPCR of total 16S rDNA revealed a bacterial load exceeding that of background DNA controls in the endometrium of 60% (15/25) of the study subjects. Bacterial profiles of the endometrium differed from those of the oral cavity, rectum, vagina, and background DNA controls, but not of the cervix. The bacterial profiles of the endometrium and cervix were dominated by Acinetobacter , Pseudomonas , Cloacibacterium , and Comamonadaceae. Both 16S rRNA gene sequencing and Lactobacillus species-specific ( L . iners & L crispatus ) qPCR showed that Lactobacillus was rare in the endometrium. In conclusion, if there is a microbiota in the middle endometrium, it is not dominated by Lactobacillus as was previously concluded, yet further investigation using culture and microscopy is necessary.

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