In zebrafish (Danio rerio) pigmentation is initiated during embryogenesis and begins in the retinal epithelium and in the melanophores. The pigment cells develop rapidly, and within hours they constitute a prominent feature of the embryo. In order to improve signal detection by whole mount in situ hybridization, confocal microscopy, or expression of GFP, embryos may be treated with 1-phenyl 2-thiourea (PTU) during embryogenesis. PTU inhibits melanogenesis by blocking all tyrosinase-dependent steps in the melanin pathway but can be toxic at high concentrations. The embryos remain transparent as long as the PTU treatment is continued. However, PTU treatment must be initiated before the initial pigmentation because it does not remove already formed pigment. Here we provide a protocol for generating transparent zebrafish while avoiding the toxic and teratogenic effects of PTU treatment.

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Background: Activator protein (AP)-1 and nuclear factor (NF)-κB largely control T-cell activation, following binding of foreign antigens to the T-cell receptor leading to cytokine secretion. Elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines such as TNF, IL-6 and CXCL8 are associated with several human diseases including cystic fibrosis, pulmonary fibrosis and AIDS. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of the transcription factors, AP-1 and NF-κB, in IL-6 and CXCL8 regulation in Jurkat T-cells. Results:Phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) exposure resulted in an up-regulation of AP-1 and down-regulation of NF-κB activity, however, exposure to heat killed (HK) Escherichia. coli MG1655 resulted in a dose-dependent increase in NF-κB activity without affecting AP-1. The cytokine profile revealed an up-regulation of the chemokine CXCL8 and the proinflammatory cytokines TNF, IL-2 and IL-6 following treatment with both PMA and HK E. coli, while the levels of the antiinflammatory cytokine IL-10 were not affected by PMA but were significantly down-regulated by HK E. coli. AP-1 activation was significantly increased 2 h after PMA exposure and continued to increase thereafter. In contrast, NF-κB responded to PMA exposure by a rapid up-regulation followed by a subsequent down-regulation. Increased intracellular Ca 2+ concentrations countered the down-regulation of NF-κB by PMA, while similar treatment with calcium ionophore resulted in a reduced NF-κB activity following induction with HK E. coli. In order to further study NF-κB activation, we considered two up-stream signalling proteins, PKC and Bcl10. Phosphorylated-PKC levels increased in response to PMA and HK E. coli, while Bcl10 levels significantly decreased following PMA treatment. Using an NF-κB activation inhibitor, we observed complete inhibition of IL-6 expression while CXCL8 levels only decreased by 40% at the highest concentration. Treatment of Jurkat T-cells with PMA in the presence of JNK-inhibitor suppressed both CXCL8 and IL-6 while PKC-inhibitor primarily decreased CXCL8 expression. Conclusion:The present study shows that NF-κB regulated IL-6 but not CXCL8. This complex regulation of CXCL8 suggests that there is a need to further evaluate the signalling pathways in order to develop new treatment for diseases with elevated CXCL8 levels, such as AIDS and autoimmune diseases.

The risk posed by complex chemical mixtures in the environment to wildlife and humans is increasingly debated, but has been rarely tested under environmentally relevant scenarios. To address this issue, two mixtures of 14 or 19 substances of concern (pesticides, pharmaceuticals, heavy metals, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, a surfactant, and a plasticizer), each present at its safety limit concentration imposed by the European legislation, were prepared and tested for their toxic effects. The effects of the mixtures were assessed in 35 bioassays, based on 11 organisms representing different trophic levels. A consortium of 16 laboratories was involved in performing the bioassays. The mixtures elicited quantifiable toxic effects on some of the test systems employed, including i) changes in marine microbial composition, ii) microalgae toxicity, iii) immobilization in the crustacean Daphnia magna, iv) fish embryo toxicity, v) impaired frog embryo development, and vi) increased expression on oxidative stress-linked reporter genes. Estrogenic activity close to regulatory safety limit concentrations was uncovered by receptor-binding assays. The results highlight the need of precautionary actions on the assessment of chemical mixtures even in cases where individual toxicants are present at seemingly harmless concentrations.

Androgens play an important role in male sexual differentiation and development. They exert their function by binding to and activating the androgen receptor (Ar), a member of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily. Here, we report on the isolation and characterization of zebrafish Ar. The complete transcript of zebrafish ar is 5.3 kb long encoding a putative polypeptide of 868 amino acids. Our experimental and bioinformatic analysis has found a single ar locus in zebrafish. Phylogenetic analysis using the ligand-binding domain showed that the zebrafish Ar clustered with its cyprinid orthologs to form a separate group, which was closer to the beta clade than to the alpha clade. Tissue-specific expression analysis revealed that the ar mRNA was expressed ubiquitously in all adult tissues tested, with sexually dimorphic expression in the gonad and muscle. While the ar transcript was maternally deposited into the embryo, signs of zygotic expression could be detected as early as 24 h after fertilization, and the expression level increased substantially afterwards. When analyzed during gonad development, the expression level of ar mRNA at 4 wk after fertilization was similar in both developing gonads but later became higher in the transforming testis, suggesting a potential role during male gonad differentiation. We also combined theoretical modeling with in vitro experiments to show that the zebrafish Ar is preferentially activated by 11-ketotestosterone.

Sex determination is the process deciding the sex of a developing embryo. This is usually determined genetically; however it is a delicate process, which in many cases can be influenced by environmental factors. The mechanisms controlling zebrafish sex determination and differentiation are not known. To date no sex linked genes have been identified in zebrafish and no sex chromosomes have been identified. However, a number of genes, as presented here, have been linked to the process of sex determination or differentiation in zebrafish. The zebrafish FTZ-F1 genes are of central interest as they are involved in regulating interrenal development and thereby steroid biosynthesis, as well as that they show expression patterns congruent with reproductive tissue differentiation and function. Zebrafish can be sex reversed by exposure to estrogens, suggesting that the estrogen levels are crucial during sex differentiation. The Cyp19 gene product aromatase converts testosterone into 17 beta-estradiol, and when inhibited leads to male to female sex reversal. FTZ-F1 genes are strongly linked to steroid biosynthesis and the regulatory region of Cyp19 contains binding sites for FTZ-F1 genes, further linking FTZ-F1 to this process. The role of FTZ-F1 and other candidates for zebrafish sex determination and differentiation is in focus of this review.

All vertebrate eggs are surrounded by an extracellular envelope that protects the egg and is vital for a successful fertilization. The terminology and functions of the egg envelope vary in different vertebrate groups, but the envelope itself is consistently composed of a few major proteins that are deposited around the oocyte during oocyte growth. Here, we describe the deduced amino acid sequences and tissue expression patterns of the three major egg envelope proteins for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). All three vitelline envelope proteins (VEPs) are expressed in the livers of both male and female fish, with higher expression in females. In addition, VEPgamma mRNA is also detected in the female gonads. To our knowledge, this is the first time that expression of a VEP protein gene has been demonstrated to occur in more than one organ. Sequence comparison reveals that all three VEP proteins share distinct homology with their amphibian, avian, and mammalian counterparts. Whereas mammalian zona pellucida protein 3 isoforms contain two conserved serines needed for sperm binding, these are not conserved in teleost species, in which sperm entry is restricted to the micropyle. Besides the difference in VEPgamma sperm-binding function, the high sequence homology suggests that the egg envelope proteins from these distinct vertebrate groups share a common ancestry and form a unique group of structural proteins.