This paper reports on observational approaches developed within a UK study to the identification and assessment of metacognition and self-regulation in young children in the 3-5 year age range. It is argued that the development of observational tools, although containing methodological difficulties, allows us to make more valid assessments of children's metacognitive and self-regulatory abilities in this age group. The analysis of 582 metacognitive or self-regulatory videotaped 'events' is described, including the development of a coding framework identifying verbal and non-verbal indicators. The construction of an observational instrument, the Children's Independent Learning Development (CHILD 3-5) checklist, is also reported together with evidence of the reliability with which it can be used by classroom teachers and early indications of its external validity as a measure of metacognition and self-regulation in young children. Given the educational significance of children's development of metacognitive and self-regulatory skills, it is argued that the development of such an instrument is potentially highly beneficial. The establishment of the metacognitive and self-regulatory capabilities of young children by means of the kinds of observational tools developed within this study also has clear and significant implications for models and theories of metacognition and self-regulation. The paper concludes with a discussion of these implications.Keywords Metacognitive development . Self-regulated learning . Observational methods . Young children This paper argues for the efficacy of using observational methods in naturalistic settings in the identification and assessment of metacognition and self-regulation in young children.

This paper describes a research project currently running in Cambridgeshire Foundation Stage settings exploring the development of independent learning in young children. In the first year the project has explored the work of 16 practitioners working with 3-5 year old children, using a range of methodologies including questionnaires, interviews and reflective dialogues (based on video recordings of particular classroom episodes), reflective journals and child assessment checklists. The development of the range of abilities involved in becoming a self-regulating, independent learner has been conceptualised in terms of research and theory relating to the development of 'metacognitive' abilities and dispositions.It is argued that, while the development of independent learning is generally accepted as an important educational aim, current trends in Primary education which have encouraged a more teacher-directed approach, are not helpful. The paper advances a model of independent learning which is based on developmental psychological research, and presents interim findings from the project which suggest that even our youngest children are capable of considerable independence in their learning. While particular pedagogical techniques and approaches need to be developed, many of these are wellestablished and researched, and can be shown to be effective in fostering independent learning abilities within the Primary school context.

This article reports on evidence collected within a UK study concerning metacognition in young children in the 3-5-year age range within mathematical contexts. Young children were video-recorded on a number of occasions in the naturalistic context of their Foundation Stage settings and classrooms, including both nursery and reception classes. The children were engaged in mathematical activities designed by practitioners to facilitate metacognitive processes. Metacognitive 'events' were identified and the children's behaviour was analysed for indications of metacognitive thinking. At the same time, the pedagogical context of the activities, including interventions by adult practitioners, was analysed in relation to the metacognitive opportunities afforded. Findings were that the young children did indeed show evidence, through their talk, and their non-verbal actions, of emergent metacognitive processes, and that the nature and frequency of these processes were influenced by pedagogical aspects of the mathematical activities. In particular, pedagogical interactions which provided children in this age range with emotionally contingent support, which gave them feelings of autonomy and control, which provided them with cognitive challenges and the opportunity to articulate their thinking appeared to provoke and support metacognitive and self-regulatory behaviours.

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This paper explores the particular aspects of learning which might be supported through playful activity and reviews research and theory which link children’s play, and particularly pretence or symbolic play, to the development of metacognitive and self-regulatory skills.Three studies are reported, one observational and two experimental, which have explored this relationship. The observational study involved the video-recording of 582 metacognitive or self-regulatory ‘events’ within Foundation Stage settings. The two experimental studies replicated in different learning domains the classic study of Sylva, Bruner and Genova (1976), which contrasted the problem-solving performance of 3- to 5-year-old children who had experienced a ‘taught’ and ‘play’ condition.Evidence from the present studies reported and other studies supports the view that play, and particularly pretence or symbolic play, which might be with objects or other children, is particularly significant in its contribution to the development of children as metacognitively skilful, self-regulated learners. Evidence from the observational study indicated that child-initiated playful activities, in small groups without adult supervision, supported the greatest proportion of self-regulatory behaviours. The experimental studies suggested that the experience of the ‘play’ condition was particularly effective in preparing the children for effortful, problem-solving or creative tasks which require a high level of metacognitive and self-regulatory skill.Metacognitive and self-regulatory development is crucially important in the development of academic skills which involve intentional learning, problem-solving and creativity. An understanding of the relationship between pretend or symbolic play and self-regulation is also helpful in providing clear guidelines for adults working with young children as regards their role in supporting and encouraging play in educational contexts.