In June 2011, an eruption of rhyolite magma began at the Puyehue-Cordón Caulle volcanic complex, southern Chile. By January 2012, explosive activity had declined from sustained pyroclastic (Plinian to sub-Plinian) fountaining to mixed gas and ash jetting punctuated by Vulcanian blasts. This explosive activity was accompanied by synchronous effusion of obsidian lava in a hybrid explosive-effusive eruption. Fortuitous climatic conditions permitted ground-based observation and video recording of transient vent dynamics as well as real-time collection of proximal juvenile ash as it sedimented from the active plume. The main eruptive vent complex and site of lava effusion was represented by two loci of Vulcanian blasts within a 2 single tephra cone containing a pancake-shaped proto-lava dome. These blast loci each consisted of clusters of sub-vents that expressed correlated shifts in eruption intensity, indicating the presence of partially connected and/or branching zones of high permeability within the upper conduit. Pyroclast textures were examined by X-ray computed microtomography and their permeability was modeled by lattice Boltzmann simulations. The porosity (39 to 67 %) and Darcian permeability (3.1x10-15 m 2 perpendicular to fabric to 3.8x10-11 m 2 parallel to fabric) of fine ash emitted during ash jetting indicates that the permeable zones comprised highly sheared, tube-like bubbly magma, and contrast with the low porosity (~17 %) and nul permeability of bombs ejected to hundreds of metres from the vent in Vulcanian blasts. Residual H 2 O content of ash (0.14 wt %) and two bombs (0.2-0.25 wt %), determined by Karl-Fischer titration indicate degassing of this pyroclastic material to near-atmospheric pressures. Ash textures and simple degassing/vesiculation models indicate the onset of permeability by ductile processes of shear-enhanced bubble coalescence in the upper 1 to 1.5 km of the conduit. Repeated ash jetting and Vulcanian blasts indicate that such ductile processes were not sufficiently effective to accommodate all degassing requirements, and additional brittle (e.g., fragmentation) events transiently assisted in maintaining an open-system degassing regime that permitted long-lived, hybrid explosive-effusive activity. The eruption at Cordón Caulle has provided an excellent opportunity to closely observe key processes of silicic volcanism.
We present a highly detailed study of calving dynamics at Tunabreen, a tidewater glacier in Svalbard. A time-lapse camera was trained on the terminus and programmed to capture images every 3 seconds over a 28-hour period in August 2015, producing a highly detailed record of 34 117 images from which 358 individual calving events were distinguished. Calving activity is characterised by frequent events (12.8 events h−1) that are small relative to the spectrum of calving events observed, demonstrating the prevalence of small-scale calving mechanisms. Five calving styles were observed, with a high proportion of calving events (82%) originating at, or above, the waterline. The tidal cycle plays a key role in the timing of calving events, with 68% occurring on the falling limb of the tide. Calving activity is concentrated where meltwater plumes surface at the glacier front, and a ~ 5 m undercut at the base of the glacier suggests that meltwater plumes encourage melt-under-cutting. We conclude that frontal ablation at Tunabreen may be paced by submarine melt rates, as suggested from similar observations at glaciers in Svalbard and Alaska. Using submarine melt rate to calculate frontal ablation would greatly simplify estimations of tidewater glacier losses in prognostic models.
Abstract. Subglacial hydrological processes at tidewater glaciers remain poorly understood due to the difficulty in obtaining direct measurements and lack of empirical verification for modelling approaches. Here, we investigate the subglacial hydrology of Kronebreen, a fast-flowing tidewater glacier in Svalbard during the 2014 melt season. We combine observations of borehole water pressure, supraglacial lake drainage, surface velocities and plume activity with modelled run-off and water routing to develop a conceptual model that thoroughly encapsulates subglacial drainage at a tidewater glacier. Simultaneous measurements suggest that an earlyseason episode of subglacial flushing took place during our observation period, and a stable efficient drainage system effectively transported subglacial water through the northern region of the glacier tongue. Drainage pathways through the central and southern regions of the glacier tongue were disrupted throughout the following melt season. Periodic plume activity at the terminus appears to be a signal for modulated subglacial pulsing, i.e. an internally driven storage and release of subglacial meltwater that operates independently of marine influences. This storage is a key control on ice flow in the 2014 melt season. Evidence from this work and previous studies strongly suggests that long-term changes in ice flow at Kronebreen are controlled by the location of efficient/inefficient drainage and the position of regions where water is stored and released.
Tidewater glacier calving provides the most direct mechanism of ice transfer from land to the ocean. However, the physical melt processes influencing calving remain challenging to constrain. In this study we focus on calving rates at Kongsbreen, a tidewater glacier in Svalbard, due to three mechanisms of submarine melt: (1) free convection, (2) horizontal fjord circulation, and (3) meltwater discharge. To calculate an overall calving rate, we measure glacier velocity and terminus change using Sentinel imagery. We calculate free convection, fjord circulation, and meltwater discharge calving using mooring data for mid-fjord ocean temperature (30-80 m depth), reanalysis results for meltwater runoff, and georectified time-lapse imagery to track icebergs and infer surface circulation. Results show that the total glacier calving rate is highly correlated with ocean temperature during the 2016 melt season. When runoff was present, we found that subglacial discharge accounted for calving rates an order of magnitude greater than the maximum calving rates assigned to the other two melting mechanisms combined. Further, subglacial discharge at Kongsbreen was more efficient in inducing calving later in the season than earlier in the season, implying that the increase in ocean temperatures, the timing of meltwater discharge within a melt season, and/or the development of discrete meltwater exit channels are critical components to calving rates. As the recent atmospheric warming trend and subsequent increase in meltwater discharge is expected to continue, it is essential to understand the processes contributing to an increase in glacier calving and incorporate these processes into predictive models. Key Points:• We partition calving rate due to submarine melt into calving due to free convection, horizontal fjord circulation, and meltwater discharge • The calving rate due to meltwater discharge is up to an order of magnitude larger than fjord circulation and free convection calving rates • A given flux of meltwater has a greater impact on calving rate at the end of the melt season than in the early melt season
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