Purpose We present image classifiers based on Dense Convolutional Networks and transfer learning to classify chest X-ray images according to three labels: COVID-19, pneumonia, and normal. Methods We fine-tuned neural networks pretrained on ImageNet and applied a twice transfer learning approach, using NIH ChestX-ray14 dataset as an intermediate step. We also suggested a novelty called output neuron keeping, which changes the twice transfer learning technique. In order to clarify the modus operandi of the models, we used Layer-wise Relevance Propagation (LRP) to generate heatmaps. Results We were able to reach test accuracy of 100% on our test dataset. Twice transfer learning and output neuron keeping showed promising results improving performances, mainly in the beginning of the training process. Although LRP revealed that words on the X-rays can influence the networks' predictions, we discovered this had only a very small effect on accuracy. Conclusion Although clinical studies and larger datasets are still needed to further ensure good generalization, the state-of-the-art performances we achieved show that, with the help of artificial intelligence, chest X-rays can become a cheap and accurate auxiliary method for COVID-19 diagnosis. Heatmaps generated by LRP improve the interpretability of the deep neural networks and indicate an analytical path for future research on diagnosis. Twice transfer learning with output neuron keeping improved DNN performance.

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Objective. To propose novel SSVEP classification methodologies using deep neural networks (DNNs) and improve performances in single-channel and user-independent brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) with small data lengths. Approach. We propose the utilization of filter banks (creating sub-band components of the EEG signal) in conjunction with DNNs. In this context, we created three different models: a recurrent neural network (FBRNN) analyzing the time domain, a 2D convolutional neural network (FBCNN-2D) processing complex spectrum features and a 3D convolutional neural network (FBCNN-3D) analyzing complex spectrograms, which we introduce in this study as possible input for SSVEP classification. We tested our neural networks on three open datasets and conceived them so as not to require calibration from the final user, simulating a user-independent BCI. Results. The DNNs with the filter banks surpassed the accuracy of similar networks without this preprocessing step by considerable margins, and they outperformed common SSVEP classification methods (SVM and FBCCA) by even higher margins. Conclusion and significance. Filter banks allow different types of deep neural networks to more efficiently analyze the harmonic components of SSVEP. Complex spectrograms carry more information than complex spectrum features and the magnitude spectrum, allowing the FBCNN-3D to surpass the other CNNs. The performances obtained in the challenging classification problems indicates a strong potential for the construction of portable economical, fast and low-latency BCIs.

Resumo-Neste trabalho, propõe-se uma abordagem para classificação de sinais de EEG em interfaces cérebro-computador que tem por base uma rede neural profunda triplet. A redeé testada em uma base de dados com dez usuários, em uma configuração que exclui os dados do usuário avaliado do processo de treinamento da rede. Os resultados são promissores, embora seja necessário realizar novas investigações no sentido de analisar a perspectiva de aproveitamento adicional das relações não-lineares presentes nos dados.

Purpose We evaluated the generalization capability of deep neural networks (DNNs) in the task of classifying chest X-rays as Covid-19, normal or pneumonia, when trained in a relatively small and mixed datasets. Methods We proposed a DNN to perform lung segmentation and classification, stacking a segmentation module (U-Net), an original intermediate module and a classification module (DenseNet201). To evaluate generalization capability, we tested the network with an external dataset (from distinct localities) and used Bayesian inference to estimate the probability distributions of performance metrics. Furthermore, we introduce a novel evaluation technique, which uses layer-wise relevance propagation (LRP) and Brixia scores to compare the DNN grounds for decision with radiologists. Results The proposed DNN achieved 0.917 AUC (area under the ROC curve) on the external test dataset, surpassing a DenseNet without segmentation, which showed 0.906 AUC. Bayesian inference indicated mean accuracy of 76.1% and [0.695, 0.826] 95% HDI (high-density interval, which concentrates 95% of the metric’s probability mass) with segmentation and, without segmentation, 71.7% and [0.646, 0.786]. Conclusion Employing an analysis based on LRP and Brixia scores, we discovered that areas where radiologists found strong Covid-19 symptoms are the most important for the stacked DNN classification. External validation showed smaller accuracies than internal, indicating difficulty in generalization, which is positively affected by lung segmentation. Finally, the performance on the external dataset and the analysis with LRP suggest that DNNs can successfully detect Covid-19 even when trained on small and mixed datasets.

Este trabalho pertence à temática de interfaces cérebro-computador. Nele, utilizamos redes neurais profundas do tipo Triplet para analisar sinais de eletroencefalografia (EEG), os quais haviam sido convertidos em imagens através de transformadas de Fourier. Os sinais foram gerados em um estudo de SSVEP, onde pessoas observam um estímulo piscando e têm sua atividade cerebral monitorada. O objetivo das redes neurais é, a partir das imagens geradas (espectrogramas dos sinais), dizer que frequência estimulava visualmente o observador. Foram obtidos resultados promissores, apesar de mais estudos serem necessários para analisar a perspectiva de aproveitamento adicional das relações não-lineares presentes nos dados.

This work proposes a novel deep neural network (DNN) architecture, Implicit Segmentation Neural Network (ISNet), to solve the task of image segmentation followed by classification. It substitutes the common pipeline of two DNNs with a single model. We designed the ISNet for high flexibility and performance: it allows virtually any classification neural network architecture to analyze a common image as if it had been previously segmented. Furthermore, in relation to the original classifier, the ISNet does not cause any increment in computational cost at run-time. We implement an ISNet based on a DenseNet121 classifier to solve the task of COVID-19 detection in chest X-rays. The ISNet precisely ignored the image regions outside of the lungs; it achieved 94.5 +/-4.1% mean accuracy with an external test database, surpassing the performances of state-of-the-art DNNs (U-Net segmenter followed by DenseNet121 and standalone DenseNet121) by 6 to 7.9%. ISNet presents an accurate, fast, and light methodology to perform classification preceded by segmentation.

We evaluated the generalization capability of deep neural networks (DNNs), trained to classify chest X-rays as COVID-19, normal or pneumonia, using a relatively small and mixed dataset.We proposed a DNN architecture to perform lung segmentation and classification. It stacks a segmentation module (U-Net), an original intermediate module and a classification module (DenseNet201). We compared it to a DenseNet201.To evaluate generalization, we tested the DNNs with an external dataset (from distinct localities) and used Bayesian inference to estimate the probability distributions of performance metrics, like F1-Score.Our proposed DNN achieved 0.917 AUC on the external test dataset, and the DenseNet, 0.906. Bayesian inference indicated mean accuracy of 76.1% and [0.695, 0.826] 95% HDI with segmentation and, without segmentation, 71.7% and [0.646, 0.786].We proposed a novel DNN evaluation technique, using Layer-wise Relevance Propagation (LRP) and the Brixia score. LRP heatmaps indicated that areas where radiologists found strong COVID-19 symptoms and attributed high Brixia scores are the most important for the stacked DNN classification.External validation showed smaller accuracies than internal validation, indicating dataset bias, which segmentation reduces. Performance in the external dataset and LRP analysis suggest that DNNs can be trained in small and mixed datasets and detect COVID-19.